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- Published: 11 February 2019
The crisis of water shortage and pollution in Pakistan: risk to public health, biodiversity, and ecosystem
- Ghulam Nabi 1 , 2 ,
- Murad Ali 3 , 4 ,
- Suliman Khan 1 , 2 &
- Sunjeet Kumar 1 , 2
Environmental Science and Pollution Research volume 26 , pages 10443–10445 ( 2019 ) Cite this article
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According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan ranked third among the countries facing severe water shortage. In May 2018, the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) announced that by 2025, there will be very little or no clean water available in the country (Shukla 2018 ). It must be noted that while per capita availability in the 1950s was approximately 5000 m 3 per annum, it has now declined to below 1000 m 3 , which is an internationally recognized threshold of water scarcity (Aziz et al. 2018 ). Currently, only 20% of the country’s population has access to clean drinking water. The remaining 80% populations depends on polluted water primarily contaminated by sewerage (fecal, total coliforms, E. coli colonies), and secondarily by fertilizer, pesticides, and industrial effluents (Daud et al. 2017 ; Sahoutara 2017 ). Such water pollution is responsible for approximately 80% of all diseases and 30% of deaths (Daud et al. 2017 ). In the dried-out pipeline, a single E. coli bacterium can multiply into trillions in just a week (Ebrahim 2017 ), and such pipes are used for the water supply without any treatment. Consuming such polluted waters has not only resulted in the death of several people, but also cause bone and teeth diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis, cancer, and other waterborne diseases (Daud et al. 2017 ). According to World Health Organization (WHO), waterborne diarrheal diseases are responsible for over 2 million deaths annually across the world, with the majority occurring in children under 5 years (WHO 2018 ).
In Pakistan, approximately 60 million people are at risk of being affected by high concentrations of arsenic in drinking water; the largest mass poisoning in history (Guglielmi 2017 ). Arsenic poisoning can cause cancer, restrictive pulmonary disease, skin lesions, cardiovascular problems, diabetes mellitus, gangrene, neurological impairments, and problems in endocrine glands, immunity, liver, kidney, and bladder as well as socio-economic hazards (Rahman et al. 2018 ). Unfortunately, still, no epidemiological data of arsenic poisoning, alternate drinking water, and health interventions are available to the people at risk.
Taking into consideration the drought-hit deaths of approximately 1832 children in the last 4 years (The Newspaper’s Staff Reporter 2018 ), drying lakes (Ali 2015 ), rivers (Channa 2010 ), lowering water table, excessive use of water, lack of storage mechanism, population explosion, and climatic changes warrant serious attention (Kirby 2018 ). Furthermore, the lack of sound national water policy, lack of federal and provincial government’s interest, water conflict between nuclear-armed Pakistan and India (Kirby 2018 ), deforestation, the overwhelming potential threat to the country’s glacier reserves (Nabi et al. 2017 , 2018 ), and the poor water supply will likely negatively affect agriculture, ecology, and local biodiversity. The wildlife has already entered the red zone (Shaikh 2018 ) and can possibly turn into human crisis with the danger of large-scale regional migration of people due to drought-like situation. We have recommended some suggestions that could possibly help the people of Pakistan to get rid of water shortage and pollution, maintain an ecology, improve agriculture, and conserve local biodiversity.
Sound National Water Policy: An effective National Water Policy and management are needed to conserve and enhance water resources, minimize drinking water pollution, and improve the country’s water supply with proper sewerage facilities.
Switch to bottled drinking water: Although this seems to be an expensive option, but keeping in view the higher concentration of arsenic (50 μg/L) (Guglielmi 2017 ), fecal, bacterial, and other contamination in drinking water (Sahoutara 2017 ), it is time to switch to the bottled drinking water. The polluted water can be used for other household activities. Indirectly, this will also bring the attention of public towards water pollution and conservation.
Building dams: Both large- and small-scale dams are needed, but every effort must be made to minimize their social and ecological cost in terms of population displacement and shock to the existing ecosystem. Hence, small dams having minimal environmental and social cost should be prioritized whose waters can be used for drinking, agriculture, electricity, and fisheries. It will also help in the conservation of aquatic biodiversity and other animals, especially during seasonal migration. Instead of the many dams that are under consideration (Qureshi and Akıntug 2014 ), the authors report that hundreds of small dams can be built in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, which is rich in both aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity and can also possibly help them in conservation by providing habitat and protection from flooding.
Reforestation: Annually, Pakistan loses approximately 2.1% of its forests. If this rate continues, Pakistan will run out of forests within the next 50 years (Randhawa 2017 ). Therefore, reforestation and its management in Pakistan are intensely needed and will help in bringing rain, stabilize climate, temperature, pollution, and siltation. It will also help in controlling recurring floods and will provide suitable habitat for the local biodiversity.
Steam-based car washing: There are hundreds of thousand car washing centers in Pakistan. They not only consume a huge amount of freshwater for cleaning, but also pose a great threat to public health, biodiversity, and ecology by polluting the rivers and environment. Switching to steam-based car washing system will not only conserve the freshwater but will also reduce the water and environmental pollution.
Artificial rain: Like China, Pakistan needs a rainmaking network throughout the country. This will help in solving the problems of water shortage, protecting the ecology, reducing natural disaster, and conserving biodiversity. China is developing the world’s largest weather-manipulating system comprising tens of thousands of fuel-burning chambers. This system will increase rainfall over an area of approximately 1.6 million square kilometers (Chen 2018 ). The friendly relation, and with the execution of China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), Pakistan can take advantage to establish this technology in Pakistan.
Trans-boundary level initiatives: Currently, India is damming Pakistani River water which was allocated to Pakistan under the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty with the help of World Bank (News Desk 2018 ). Constructive bilateral discussions can help solve the problem of water shortage and threats to the rivers dependent biodiversity.
Installation of low-cost water filters: The installation of a large number of low-cost water filters throughout the country and especially in polluted areas can provide clean drinkable water to the poor people who cannot afford the expensive bottled water.
Glaciers conservation: Outside the polar region, Pakistan has the highest numbers of glaciers (> 7200) than any other country (Khan 2017 ). Unfortunately, they are melting faster than any other part of the world to an extent that by the year 2035, the country will have no more glaciers (Dawn 2013 ). Furthermore, with the execution of CPEC, humongous quantity of black carbon (Nabi et al. 2017 ) will be blown by the air to the glaciers that will further accelerate melting. Therefore, a national plan for the management of these glaciers is needed. The impact on glaciers can be minimized by allowing only electric vehicles in the nearby highways, providing solar energy systems to the local inhabitants, reforestation, and control over greenhouse gasses.
Restoring lakes. Pakistan has a total of 60 lakes and most of them are highly polluted. Due to pollution, only in Manchar Lake; Asia’s largest freshwater lakes, 14 fish species have become extinct (Ebrahim 2015 ). Restoring these lakes will provide better habitat for the biodiversity, promote ecotourism and agriculture, and water to the lake-dependent.
Regulating tube-wells drilling: Due to increase in population, demand for water increases. Whether it is domestic use, commercial or agriculture, there has been an unregulated use of tube-wells across the country where people extract as much water as they like. Because of this practice, there has been an exponential rise in the number of tube-wells due to which water table is going down in many parts of the country. Therefore, an implementation of strict policy is needed to regulate the number of tube-wells. Furthermore, in the overexploited region, artificial groundwater recharge might help to improve the water table.
Awareness: In Pakistan, water is free and therefore no attention has been given by the public to its conservation. Both on the print and electronic media, awareness is needed for water conservation. Also, as it is practiced in many countries, it is feasible to come up with a realistic water pricing mechanism to discourage its enormous waste both at household level as well as commercial level.
In summary, water scarcity and pollution are serious overwhelming threats to the world’s sixth populous country, Pakistan. The government needs to pay urgent and serious attention to water conservation and minimizing water pollution to avoid serious consequences in the form of drought, famine, internal migration, and loss of biodiversity.
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Ghulam Nabi, Suliman Khan & Sunjeet Kumar
University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shijingshan District, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
Department of Management Studies, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
German Development Institute, Bonn, Germany
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Nabi, G., Ali, M., Khan, S. et al. The crisis of water shortage and pollution in Pakistan: risk to public health, biodiversity, and ecosystem. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26 , 10443–10445 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04483-w
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Received : 11 June 2018
Accepted : 05 February 2019
Published : 11 February 2019
Issue Date : 01 April 2019
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04483-w
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Pakistan’s Water Crisis
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While Pakistan’s financial crisis is getting much media attention, the water crisis, its most pressing problem, is being ignored.
A woman holds an umbrella as she walks on a dry bank that provides water to Islamabad and Rawalpindi at Rawal Dam in Islamabad, Pakistan, Friday, June 22, 2018.
The media is rife with stories of Pakistan’s financial crisis. Unwarranted and ill-founded parallels are being drawn with Sri Lanka. The fiscal situation in the country will soon stabilize (though not resolve) after the budget is presented on June 10 and the IMF releases a tranche of $900 million; this endorsement will prompt China, Saudi Arabia, and other countries to park some dollars as well. However, other problems will continue to haunt Pakistan’s socioeconomic and, as an extension, political circumstances.
The most pressing among these is the acute water crisis. This crisis will not only affect Pakistan’s agriculture sector, which contributes to 23 percent of Pakistan’s GDP and employs 42 percent of its labor force, but also it will take the form of an existential threat to energy and food security, and therefore national security.
A recent report, “ Water Crisis in Pakistan : Manifestation, Causes and the Way Forward,” published by the Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE) sheds some light on the gravity of the issue by adducing eye-opening statistics. Pakistan ranks 14 out of 17 “extremely high water risk” countries in the world, as the country wastes one-third of water available. More than 80 percent of the country’s population faces “severe water scarcity.” Water availability in Pakistan has plummeted from 5,229 cubic meters per inhabitant in 1962 to just 1,187 in 2017.
One indicator highlighting the seriousness of the issue is the water withdrawal rate , which can be defined as the amount of water withdrawn from a source (surface or groundwater). Note that this is different from water consumption, which is the portion of withdrawn water that has been permanently lost as it was consumed (evaporated, used by plants or humans, etc.). Pakistan has been ranked 160th, better than only 18 countries, in terms of water withdrawals to water resource ratio. Moreover, the country treats only 1 percent of wastewater, one of the lowest rates in the world. Around 40 percent of water in Pakistan is lost due to spillage, seepage, side leakage, and bank cuttings along with irregular profiling of alignment of banks.
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water; 97 percent of Pakistan’s freshwater is used by the sector. The water crisis is putting the largest sector of the country’s economy at risk. Besides water deficiency and drought, there are other issues like water-logging and salinity affecting Pakistan’s crops, which are responsible for 60 percent of the agriculture sector’s contribution to GDP. An estimated shortage of around 70 million tons of food is expected by 2025.
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Additionally, 30 percent of Pakistan’s land is expected to be waterlogged while 13 percent is saline. When coupled together with the overarching issue of growing water scarcity, one can see an existential threat to the country in the offing. Crop productivity is affected by water availability. This will impact cotton, which plays a pivotal role in the backbone of the country’s industry, textiles. Sugar is another crop that requires sufficient amounts of water and so does wheat.
Col. Abid, a senior defense analyst and an expert on water management in Pakistan, says that “climate change, the apathy of successive governments towards growing water shortage at all levels, and the lack of planning have resulted in a severe water crisis” in Pakistan. “The country has reached a stage where its water management system seems to be progressing in the wrong direction,” he argued, adding that “instead of getting better, the crisis is getting worse.”
Pakistan’s population is expected to exceed 380 million by 2050, according to a U.N. report. Moreover, by 2025 the demand for water in Pakistan is expected to reach 274 million acre feet (MAF) as compared to 191 MAF supply of water.
The problem is that policymakers, the media, and the public are least bothered with what I have described as a threat to Pakistan’s national security. Switch on the television and 99 percent of talk shows will be focused on politics — who said what to whom. This needs to change. It doesn’t require any computer model or algorithm or a verbose research paper to see that if the water crisis isn’t addressed with a proactive approach, this can even lead to conflict between provinces, which can tear away the fabric of social cohesion, further weakening Pakistan from within.
Water crisis and its management should be prioritized to the highest degree. Pakistan should impose a water emergency and engage at international and national level to solve its crisis before it gets too late.
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Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health--a review
Affiliation.
- 1 Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Staudtstr. 5, 91058 Erlangen, Germany.
- PMID: 21087795
- DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2010.10.007
Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country. Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated. Human activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of water quality. Microbial and chemical pollutants are the main factors responsible exclusively or in combination for various public health problems. This review discusses a detailed layout of drinking water quality in Pakistan with special emphasis on major pollutants, sources of pollution and the consequent health problems. The data presented in this review are extracted from various studies published in national and international journals. Also reports released by the government and non-governmental organizations are included.
Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Water Resources and Industry
Freshwater competition among agricultural, industrial, and municipal sectors in a water-scarce country. lessons of pakistan's fifty-year development of freshwater consumption for other water-scarce countries.
Agriculture in Pakistan consumes 98% of available water.
In the last fifty years, agriculture was able to triple production with the same water volume.
More industrial production and municipal water supply depend on water-efficient agriculture.
Governmental volumetric EFR definitions allocate maximum water volumes to society.
Water volumes for society cannot increase anymore, causing competition among sectors.
Agriculture, industry and municipal water supply compete over scarce freshwater. This study calculated sectoral blue water footprints (WFs) in water scarce Pakistan between 1971-2020. Agriculture dominates blue WFs, industry contributed 0.5–1.4%, municipal WFs 0.5–1.7%. Manufacture (cloth and yarn) and electricity production (hydropower) dominated blue industrial WFs. Agricultural crop and livestock production tripled using the same amount of blue water, but industrial and municipal WFs increased with increasing production/population, the blue industrial WF by a factor of 3.3, municipal WFs by a factor of 3.6. Pakistan's water scarcity depends on environmental flow requirement (EFR) definitions. Volumetric government definitions generate low water scarcity allocating almost all water to society. Higher EFR's generate moderate to severe scarcity. Efficient agriculture leaves more water for industry and municipal supply, increasing crop output and decreasing sectoral competition. Policy might support improved water infrastructure. Pakistan's lessons are relevant for other water scarce countries.
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BioMed Research International
Drinking water quality status and contamination in pakistan.
Due to alarming increase in population and rapid industrialization, drinking water quality is being deteriorated day by day in Pakistan. This review sums up the outcomes of various research studies conducted for drinking water quality status of different areas of Pakistan by taking into account the physicochemical properties of drinking water as well as the presence of various pathogenic microorganisms. About 20% of the whole population of Pakistan has access to safe drinking water. The remaining 80% of population is forced to use unsafe drinking water due to the scarcity of safe and healthy drinking water sources. The primary source of contamination is sewerage (fecal) which is extensively discharged into drinking water system supplies. Secondary source of pollution is the disposal of toxic chemicals from industrial effluents, pesticides, and fertilizers from agriculture sources into the water bodies. Anthropogenic activities cause waterborne diseases that constitute about 80% of all diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths. This review highlights the drinking water quality, contamination sources, sanitation situation, and effects of unsafe drinking water on humans. There is immediate need to take protective measures and treatment technologies to overcome unhygienic condition of drinking water supplies in different areas of Pakistan.
1. Introduction
Pakistanis are situated in southern Asia, bordering with India in the east, Afghanistan in the west, and China in the north. In the east of Pakistan, there exist mountains of Himalaya and Karakorum. In the north, Hindukush ranges exist, and hill regions (up to 4700 m) in the northwest and in the upland Baluchistan plateau exist. The climatic conditions are mostly arid to semiarid with varying levels of average rainfalls in different areas of Pakistan [ 1 ]. Indus is the major river of Pakistan, flowing from Karakorum ranges to south and finally falls in the Arabian Sea. Agriculture farming has a major role in Pakistan’s economy. 27% of the total land is under farming and the main crops are wheat, maize, rice, cotton and sugarcane. To fulfill the requirements of increasing population, pesticides, and fertilizers are applied to increase the crops outcome. Most of industries such as textile, pesticide, and fertilizer industries are present in major cities.
Pakistan has been blessed by nature with enough surface and groundwater resources. Industrialization, urbanization, and rapid population growth have placed huge stress on water resources [ 2 ]. Water has a vital role in our life processes including growth and development. It plays significant role in our every field of life [ 3 ]. Due to technological developments, drinking water may contain various impurities, which are of physical, biological, and chemical nature. The most dangerous impurity is of biological nature, which causes human health problems or cause death [ 4 ]. Various impurities in the form of nutrient and microorganisms are transported from one place to another [ 5 ]. Water pollution occurs when microorganisms and toxic chemicals from domestic waste and industries either come in contact with water bodies or run off or leach into ground water or freshwater resources [ 6 ]. The contamination of animal and human fecal indicates presence of coli form bacteria [ 7 ]. The growth and dispersion of bacteria is at peak in rainy season due to drainage in water bodies, that is, rivers, lakes, and streams. Poor treatment facilities cause spread of waterborne diseases. In Pakistan, drinking water sanitation system and drainage lines run in parallel, which causes leakages and intermixing result in deterioration of water quality [ 8 ].
In most of the cities of Pakistan, the elementary source of provision is ground water supply, which contains various pathogens including many viral, bacterial, and protozoan agents causing 2.5 million deaths from endemic diarrheal disease each year [ 9 ].
Water pollution is a physical process that occurs in various water resources such as lakes, ground water, and rivers due to anthropogenic activities [ 10 ]. The utilization of poor quality water causes waterborne diseases and their spread. In Pakistan, about 50% of diseases and 40% of deaths occur due to poor drinking water quality reported in community health studies [ 11 ]. Above 80% of the people of province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) are utilizing clean drinking water that comes from surface and ground sources. In KP, surface water resources are clean and fit for drinking but, in the south, color of ground water is blackish. Clean water is also found in deepness. But, in the center of KP ground water availability is excessive and pumped out with the help of tube wells for routine use. The water resources in the north of KP are mainly surface water resources and springs. The drinking water quality and quantity are very low because of poor treatment of deteriorated water and old sanitation system in urban areas [ 12 ].
When water comes from surface water resources, it is necessary to make it safe for drinking purposes. Chlorination is the popular method for disinfection of drinking water at treatment plant and in sanitation system [ 35 ]. It is the universal method to make drinking water safe and to reduce epidemic diseases [ 36 – 39 ].
Drinking water should be free from color, turbidity, odor, and microbes. It should be esthetically pleasant. Due to increasing population of Faisalabad, contaminated water is the most alarming problem. In 1999, Faisalabad required about 64.7 million gallons of drinking water supply daily to fulfill needs. But unfortunately 3 million gallons of this water came from domestic pumps that come out from subsoil water and tube well [ 40 ]. According to Pakistan National Conservation Strategy [ 41 ], less rain, drought, and nondevelopment of other water resources reduce water availability and increase water scarcity.
The current water supply is about 79% in Pakistan [ 42 ]. Improper and poor water supply for drinking purpose has a great health risk to the public. The release of toxic chemicals from urban communities and industries without any treatment into water bodies deteriorates water quality and also causes adverse effects to human beings. In Pakistan, water and sanitation agency has been focusing on water quantity due to increasing requirements rather than water quality. All this is due to the lack of awareness, treatment technology, equipment, trained personnel, and quality monitoring [ 43 ].
Human health is adversely affected by various agents like pathogens, bacteria, various minerals, and organic substances that are present in unsafe drinking water. A significant proportion of population in developing countries is suffering from health-related issues due to unsafe drinking water and microbial contamination [ 44 ]. In the developing countries, about five million children deaths occurred due to the contaminated drinking water supply [ 45 ]. This situation is intensifying day by day due to the fast population growth which ultimately results in poor management of water quality [ 46 ]. It is estimated that, in Pakistan, 30% of all diseases and 40% of all deaths are due to poor water quality [ 47 ]. Diarrhea, a waterborne disease, is reported as the leading cause of death in infants and children in Pakistan while every fifth citizen suffers from illness and disease caused by the polluted water [ 48 ].
In Pakistan, approaches to safe drinking water have reached acceptable limits. Reference [ 49 ] analyzed that about 25% population has approach to safe drinking water. The poor water supply was caused by the lack of water availability. Water pollution is mainly caused by heavy utilization of water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes.
In Pakistan, the main reasons of waterborne diseases in drinking water are the addition of municipal sewage and industrial wastewater at different points of the water distribution network as well as lack of water disinfection and water quality monitoring at treatment plants. Pakistan National Conservation Strategy [ 41 ] reported that water-related diseases represent 40% of the communicable diseases. In Pakistan, waterborne diseases are typhoid, giardiasis, intestinal worms, diarrhea, cryptosporidium infections, and gastroenteritis. Infant deaths caused by water-related diarrhea are 60% in Pakistan according to International Union on Conservation of Nature (IUCN) report, which is the highest ratio in Asia.
In Pakistan, water quality in most of the cities is decreasing quickly. The major cause of decreasing water quality is the ground water supply. According to [ 50 ], the number of diarrheal cases that are registered in Pakistan each year is about one hundred million. According to Tahir et al. [ 51 ], above eighty thousand cases related to waterborne diseases were noted in healthcare units only in Rawalpindi. 20%–40% of hospitals of Pakistan are filled with people that are suffering from waterborne illness, according to United Nation International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF). Diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis, giardiasis, and cryptosporidiosis and guinea worm infections represent about 80% (including diseases due to sanitation problem) of all diseases and are responsible for 33% of deaths [ 51 ].
2. Water Availability
Nature has gifted Pakistan with enough ground and surface water resources. Unfortunately anthropogenic activities such as industrialization, increase in population, and improper utilization decrease the quantity and damage the quality. According to Jamshed Iqbal Cheema (Chairman: Pakistan Agriculture Scientists Association), the per capita water availability in Pakistan at the time of independence was 5,600 cubic meters [ 52 ], which has been decreased by over 406 percent from 5,260 cubic meters in 1951 to 1,038 cubic meters in 2010. If the status quo continues, then, by 2020, the water availability in Pakistan will further plummet to 877 cubic meters per annum and will further decrease to 660 by year 2025 and will further go down to an alarming level of 575 cubic feet in 2050 [ 53 ] (Figure 1 ).
In Punjab, 7% of all the rural population depends on dug wells and rivers for water supply. It seems that Punjab has best water supply system among all the provinces. This ratio is 24% in Sindh and people are utilizing water from unprotected sources. The rural communities of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Baluchistan using water from surface and dug well are about 46% and 72%, respectively, [ 1 ], as shown in Figure 2 .
3. Water Quality
Water for drinking purposes mainly comes out from the surface and underground aquifers near the rivers or canals. The surface water quality is dropping rapidly due to the addition of raw municipal and industrial effluents and agriculture runoff into water resources [ 54 ]. When flow of river water is at its peak, it contains high solid suspension. Most of the rivers are extended and diluted and do not endure aquatic life. It is clear that these water bodies are fecally contaminated and need proper processing to free them from contaminants for human use. In Pakistan, four major cities have been using surface water; these are Islamabad, Karachi, Rawalpindi, and Hyderabad.
About 70% of water for drinking purposes comes from aquifers [ 55 ]. The decrease in ground water quality is due to the overpumping of saline water and its addition to fresh water. The ground water quality in Pakistan is found saline far away from the main rivers and fresh water near to the main rivers. The quality of drinking water is determined by the quality of water source, the level and treatment efficiency, and condition of water supply lines. In Pakistan, in most areas where the fresh water source is not available and ground water is saline, people have no choice but to use this type of water for drinking. The contamination of water due to microbes is the most blistering issue. The drinking water distribution in urban areas does not meet the WHO standards [ 56 ]. The main reason of microbial contamination is due to the intermixing of sewer lines with drinking water supply lines. In most of the rural areas of Pakistan, surface water is used for drinking after slow sand filtration and chlorination is not done at filtration stations. In most rural areas, no pretreatment facilities are available for filtration of water. All this inadequacy is due to microbial contamination and poor water quality. Hand pumps and wells are not safe from surface runoff and flooding [ 57 ].
Water pollution is the deterioration of water quality due to the addition of wastes coming from industries, domestic and agriculture. Utilization of such water for beneficial use causes contrary effects on environment and public health. Industrialization and emergence of urban units placed immense stress on water resources and discharge of wastewater into natural water resources that decreases ground and surface water quality [ 58 ].
The most serious pollutants in terms of human health worldwide are pathogenic organisms. Altogether, at least 25 million deaths each year occur due to these water-related diseases, including nearly two-thirds of the deaths of children under five years of age. The main and major source of biological agents is unprocessed and unconventional treatment of human waste [ 59 ]. The highest infant mortality rate (12.6%) and fertility rate (7%) reflect the poor health status of Pakistan. The bare hospital information indicates that most of the treated diseases are due to fecal contamination. About 25% of patients treated at hospitals, private clinics, or healthcare centers are suffering from diarrhea including children and adults [ 60 , 61 ].
4. Water Quality Parameters
The physical, biological, and chemical properties of drinking water have great importance because a minor fluctuation in these parameters affects the human health. The pH is crucial factor that greatly affects water quality and quantity of pollution in water bodies [ 62 ]. However, pH of drinking water has no direct effect on human. Indirectly it changes meat solubility and provides suitable environment for pathogens. High pH causes acidic taste of drinking water [ 63 ]. The defined standards of drinking water quality [ 64 ] are shown in Table 1 .
5. Sources of Contamination
5.1. microbiological contaminants.
In Pakistan, microbial pollution has been discovered as one of the serious problems in rural as well as urban areas. This is due to the leakage of pipe, pollution from sewage lines intrusion into drinking water supplies, and so forth.
5.2. Chemical Contaminants
Chemical contaminants come from industries, soil sediments, and runoff from agriculture, that is, pesticides and fertilizers, and enter into water resources. In Pakistan, the application of fertilizer and pesticides is, respectively, about 5.6 million tons and 70 thousand tons according to Gross Operating Profit (GOP) figures. These chemicals, commonly insecticides, leach into ground water resources by mixing with irrigated and rain water. During 1988–2000, about 107 samples were collected from ground water and 31 samples indicated pesticide contamination that was clearly beyond the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and WHO permissible limits. In Pakistan, another important trouble with ground water is highest concentration of salts, which is mainly due to irrigation, soil salts dissolution, sea water encroachment, and chemical industries. Salinity impacts the major areas of Baluchistan, KP, and Punjab. Effluent from industries and domestics contains high concentration of arsenic that is becoming a severe problem. In major cities of Sindh and Punjab, about sixteen percent of people are exposed to more than 50 ppm of arsenic. Higher concentration of fluoride above permissible limits causes a trouble in major areas of Baluchistan, Punjab, and Sindh. The dental fluorosis diseases are commonly found in Sindh, Punjab, and KP.
6. Floods Cause Major Damage to Drainage System
In Pakistan, floods have been creating great environmental problems. They damage drains and ultimately cause spillage of sewage water into water bodies. Severe flooding destroys buildings and standing crops. All these may cause release of toxic chemicals and oil into river, streams, and lakes, and so forth and may lead to death of aquatic life. A lot of chemical contaminants mix with flood water on its way. The current severe flood (2010) and heavy rains damaged 80% of Nowshera, devastating 40% of infrastructure. The total destroyed and damaged houses were in the range of 10,000 and 40,000, respectively [ 65 ].
7. Water Quality Status in Provinces of Pakistan
7.1. water quality status in twin cities.
To evaluate the drinking water quality of Islamabad, drinking water samples had been collected from schools and colleges. Analysis showed that 20 samples out of 30 were contaminated with fecal microbes and not fit for drinking purposes [ 66 ]. Microbial contamination is the most common and widespread risk associated with drinking water. About 130 samples were collected from nine areas to analyze microbial contamination in drinking water of Rawalpindi and Islamabad. 56.1% of water samples were found to have microbial contamination. Microbial contamination for fecal coliforms, E. coli , and total coliforms was 23.8%, 20%, and 12.3%, respectively. The WASA supply lines were highly contaminated followed by capital development authority lines and boring water and less contamination was found in tanker water [ 16 ], while thirty-two samples were collected from different water filtration plants throughout Islamabad city and it was found that more than half of the samples were contaminated with total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli [ 18 ].
Geographic Information System and Water Quality Index study of bore wells and open wells of Rawalpindi and Islamabad revealed that more than half of samples were poor in quality for drinking due to overexploitation of groundwater resource, agricultural impact, and direct release of contaminants [ 15 ].
Drinking water contamination with E. coli and fecal coliforms is clear indication of human and animal waste intervention [ 67 ]. In Rawalpindi, water distribution channels and treatment plants were also having fecal coliform contamination [ 67 , 68 ]. The Rawal Lake and its distributions channels are the main source of drinking water for Rawalpindi, which were also found highly contaminated with bacteria [ 69 ]. Water quality of Islamabad was analyzed by [ 13 ]. Results obtained showed that about 77% of the total 271 samples collected were biologically contaminated and unfit for human use. On the other hand 10.3% of the total samples were found to be physically and also biologically contaminated, among which 196 samples from capital development authority (CDA) were collected for drinking water analysis. The result showed that 5.1% of the total samples collected were found to be bacteriologically contaminated and 3.6% were found to be both physicochemically and bacteriologically contaminated. In Islamabad and Rawalpindi, the water quality was not found better than the whole country. The water quality of natural streams situated in the capital city is also deteriorated. Water reservoirs were highly contaminated with total coliform and fecal coliforms bacteria, so proper water treatment for drinking and domestic use is required [ 70 ]. The heterotrophic bacterial assessment of drinking water quality of tube wells, water supplies, and filtration plants in various sectors of Islamabad revealed that 21% of 55 samples were contaminated with total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli [ 17 ].
Physicochemical parameters on water quality of Islamabad indicated that alkalinity, hardness, and total dissolved solids in all samples were within safe limits as recommended by Pakistan Standard and Quality Control Authority (PSQCA). But coliform and E. coli were detected in all water samples, so water was found unfit for drinking purposes as WHO recommended [ 14 ]. Higher amount of calcium, lime stone, and magnesium carbonate in drinking water caused significant level of hardness in I-9 and G-10 sectors, in Islamabad [ 71 ]. E. coli was detected in drinking water samples collected from Risalpur, Pabbi, and Tarnab [ 72 ] as shown in Table 2 .
7.2. Water Quality Status in Punjab
Drinking water quality and chlorination effect of two villages in south Punjab were analyzed [ 73 ]. Results of this study highlighted that all 53 samples collected from two villages had significant numbers of E. coli bacteria before and after chlorination process. According to WHO and PEPA, drinking water should contain 0/100 mL of E. coli or coliform.
Faisalabad is known as polluted industrial city due to the inadequate treatment facilities. The impact on water resources near Samundri drain in Faisalabad showed that the ground water quality was the worst as 90% of samples were above the WHO limits with respect to TDS, Na, K, Cl, and SO 4 [ 21 ]. The people’s perception of rural areas in a tehsil Samundri, district Faisalabad, was that the water quality of different sources, that is, hand and electric pumps, was poor [ 26 ].
The physicochemical analysis of drinking water was carried out to evaluate drinking water quality of Faisalabad city. The turbidity, hardness, pH, and TDS were found within safe limits of WHO guidelines. The microbial analysis showed that all samples were contaminated with total coliforms and E. coli [ 22 ]. The impact of municipal and industrial wastewater on water resources in Faisalabad showed that the physicochemical properties of ground water were beyond the critical values of WHO. However, bottle and supply lines were within critical range [ 20 ].
Chemical and biological analyses of drinking water samples collected from three different sites in Faisalabad showed that pH was found within the range according to WHO standards and electrical conductivity was found above the permissible limits. Higher electrical conductivity (EC) is due to the dissolution of subsoil minerals and leaching into ground water. Bacteria were also found in water samples which showed fecal contamination. All these analyses indicate that water is not fit for drinking purposes [ 74 ]. The concentration of As and coliform bacteria was above the threshold level in samples collected from different sources in University of Punjab, Lahore [ 19 ].
Water quality monitoring was carried out to access chlorination of supply lines in Cantonment area, Rawalpindi. The temperature of all samples was above the critical values as recommended by WHO. Water temperature is an important factor for microbial growth [ 75 ]. The pH and total dissolved solids are within range of US-EPA and WHO limits and similar to the results of [ 68 ]. Conductivity and chlorine residuals were also found within limits of WHO. Total dissolved solids and conductivity have a direct relation: as concentration of mineral salts increases, conductivity increases [ 76 ]. Microbial analysis indicated the presence of fecal coliform in all samples collected from both sites [ 77 ].
Drinking water quality of urban areas of southern Lahore was evaluated before and after monsoon season. It was seen that the values of pH of all sources and house connections were well within the WHO desirable limit both before and after the monsoon season. The turbidity in water was less than the desirable limit of 0.5 NTU while it was more than 0.5 NTU before and after the monsoon at two sites. The hardness at all the sources (T/W) and house connections was less than the WHO guideline. The TDS values were in critical limits. The bacteriological contamination was also not detected in water samples before and after monsoon. Fecal contamination showed that water had come in contact with human feces [ 78 ].
Drinking water quality test carried out in twelve districts of Punjab showed that microbial and heavy metal (arsenic) were major contamination found in all districts. At least 45% of the samples of Kasur district were found to be contaminated with microbes. About 73%, 100%, 64%, 94%, 100%, and 88% of drinking water samples of Sheikhupura, Lahore, Gujranwala, Multan, Kasur, and Bahawalpur were highly contaminated with arsenic. Total dissolved solids (TDS) were found above the permissible limits in Sargodha, Sheikhupura, Kasur, Faisalabad, and Rawalpindi [ 2 ]. Physical parameters of the samples collected from three different sites in Sabzazar district, Lahore, were within permissible limits of WHO. There was no detection of fecal coliform bacteria in samples collected from tube well and supply lines but E. coli contamination was detected in samples collected from household tabs showing that water was unfit for drinking purpose [ 79 ].
The chemical analysis of groundwater samples collected from rural areas of Punjab indicated that water was unfit for drinking purpose. High values of EC, , , , Fe, Mn, and Pb were observed in many samples above the permissible limits [ 80 ]. The poor drainage system and improper waste dumping in villages of Pakistan are the main source of drinking water contamination. The bacterial analysis of drinking water samples of tube well, hand pumps, and turbines from Gangapur (village), Faisalabad, had a clear image of cow dung and municipal waste water contamination causing stomach diseases, that is, diarrhea, especially in infants [ 81 ].
The physicochemical analysis of different samples collected from urban areas of Faisalabad showed that the pH value and hardness were within range as recommended by WHO. The values of alkalinity, TDS, sulphate (SO 4 ), and chlorides were found above the permissible limits of WHO. Overall the ground water used for drinking purpose in urban areas of Faisalabad was intensively polluted with sewerage water [ 82 ] as shown in Table 3 .
7.3. Water Quality Status in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP)
Water samples were collected from tube wells and storage tanks to determine the drinking water quality in rural areas of Peshawar. Results indicated that just 13% of the samples were negative for bacterial contamination, 40% were found in the satisfactory level, and 47% of the samples were found to be highly contaminated with E. coli [ 83 ]. The physicochemical analysis of drinking water samples collected from thirty different sites across urban areas of Peshawar described that pH at seven sites was not within WHO limits while EC was within range. TDS, turbidity, carbonates, and bicarbonates were within recommended range of WHO but magnesium was higher than critical level [ 84 ]. In districts Bannu and Haripur, physicochemical and microbial analyses of various portable water samples indicated that the water quality was poor and below the quality parameters of WHO [ 85 , 86 ].
The drinking water samples collected for bacteriological detection demonstrated that about ninety-two percent of water samples were detected as contaminated [ 87 ]. The underground water quality of Swabi was analyzed for drinking purpose. Physical and chemical parameters of tube wells such as temperature, pH, EC, TSS, and BOD were within range of WHO [ 88 ]. The analysis of heavy metal contamination in drinking water of urban as well as rural areas of Peshawar described that the drinking water was highly contaminated with Pb and Cd. However, the concentrations of As, Cu, Co, Hg, Ni, and Zn were significantly higher than WHO limits making water unfit for drinking purpose. Therefore, there is urgent need to take steps to improve treatment technologies [ 23 ].
The physical and chemical parameters of drinking water in Narangi and sounding areas of Swabi district demonstrated that the physical parameters were within permissible limits but regarding chemical parameters Pb and nitrite concentrations were found higher than WHO limits [ 89 ]. The water quality of Nomal valley, Gilgit-Baltistan, indicated that the pH, temperature, turbidity, hardness, odor, taste, and alkalinity were within recommended range of WHO. But the microbial examination showed that all water samples were highly polluted [ 26 ].
Water samples collected for physicochemical analysis from tehsil of Jamrud and Landikotal, Khyber agency, showed that all parameters were within range set by WHO. However, the concentration of Ca and Mg exceeds the limits of WHO. The heavy metal concentrations were also below the WHO permissible limits. But Cd concentration was higher than WHO permissible limits [ 24 ].
Chemical and microbial aspects of water samples collected from four cities, that is, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawar, and Manghora, were analyzed. More than 55% of all samples from these cities were highly contaminated with microbes. In KP, iron contamination was enlisted as second major contamination. In Peshawar and Mardan more than 38% and 67% of samples were contaminated with iron, respectively [ 2 ]. The samples of drinking water collected from various reservoirs (streams, tube wells, and water storage tanks) in Kohat (KP) showed that samples collected from tube wells in Shakarda, Ara Khail, and Lachi were found to be safe for drinking but storage tanks and wells were highly contaminated. The drinking water quality of Charsadda (KP) was also poor as in other regions and indicated that the concentration of sulphate, nitrate, and heavy metals was above the threshold level and they were contaminated with coliform bacteria [ 90 ].
The microbial and physical investigation of drinking water quality in new urban Peshawar indicated that the pH was within permissible limits but the value of EC in five tube wells, seven supply channels, and nine storage tank samples was found above critical values. Similarly, the TSS values of water samples collected from supply channels, storage points, and tube wells were 30%, 60% and 10% beyond the critical limits of WHO. Bacteriological analysis showed that about one-third of all samples were not detected to have bacteriological contamination, while others were contaminated [ 25 ].
The water quality from different villages of Nagar valley revealed that all the tested parameters, that is, temperature, pH, turbidity, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total coliform bacteria, total fecal bacteria, calcium hardness, cyanuric acid, and total alkalinity, were meeting the prescribed standards of WHO and EPA [ 91 ] as shown in Table 4 .
7.4. Water Quality Status in Baluchistan
Biological and chemical water quality of Baluchistan are not satisfactory as revealed by various studies. In four cities of Baluchistan, that is, Ziarat, Loralai, Quetta, and Khuzdar, the water quality was badly contaminated with microorganisms making water unfit for human use. Water samples of these cities showed that NO 3 concentration was higher than the recommended limits of WHO. About 50% of water samples, collected from Ziarat, were found highly contaminated with NO 3 [ 2 ]. The drinking water quality assessment of different colonies in Quetta city revealed that pH, TDS, and hardness value of all samples were within the WHO range but 50% of the samples were found to have high EC value and COD of all samples was above the critical limits of WHO [ 29 ]. The drinking water quality of Quetta was inadequate having bad taste, foul smell/odor, change in appearance, and pathogens being 57%, 44%, 39%, and 60%, respectively [ 28 ].
Temperature examination revealed a little fluctuation in results between 12.10 and 13.50°C. The highest value was determined in Thole channel water while the lowest was found in Nilt tank water. According to WHO and EPA, turbidity must not exceed 5 NTU and water having turbidity less than 1.00 NTU is excellent for domestic consumption. Turbidity of all samples was less than 5 NTU [ 91 ]. The surface and groundwater sources of drinking water throughout Baluchistan were highly contaminated with coliforms, heavy metals, and pesticides. Human activities like improper disposal of municipal and industrial effluents and indiscriminate applications of agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of water quality [ 92 ]. The fluoride concentration in various drinking water samples collected from tap and wells water in Quetta indicated that all samples were within permissible limits of WHO except one sample of tap water [ 93 ].
The bacteriological and physicochemical study of Hingol River situated at Hingol National Park was carried out, where the majority of its inhabitants are leading nomadic life style [ 94 , 95 ] and consume the water of the river as no alternative water resources are available. The physicochemical parameters of the samples collected were according to the NSDWQ standards. But the TDS value was greater than the permissible limits in postmonsoon. The BOD concentration was also relatively higher [ 27 ] as shown in Table 5 .
7.5. Water Quality Status in Sindh
The drinking water quality of Khairpur, Sindh, showed high level coliform and fecal coliform contamination in drinking water at different points; therefore, it is not suitable for drinking purpose. It is evident from the results (high coliform and fecal coliform count at all 3 levels) that the quality of drinking water is further deteriorated in the distribution system which may be due to the leakage of pipes where sewage water enters into the municipal water. At the consumer level, the drinking water is getting more contaminated due to the unhygienic handling and uncovered storage tanks. Drinking water quality should have no coliform as well as fecal coliform present in 100 mL or 0 colony forming units (cfu) per 100 mL WHO [ 96 ].
The ground water of different villages in district Khairpur, Sindh, was analyzed physicochemically for drinking and irrigation purposes. The chemical and physical characteristics of all samples were above the WHO guidelines and water was not fit for drinking as well as for irrigation purposes [ 30 ]. Bacteriological and physicochemical examination of groundwater in the coastal areas of Sindh indicated that groundwater was unfit for drinking purpose. Phosphate and sulphate concentrations were within range. But, organic and fecal contamination was higher than turbidity and salinity [ 33 ]. The ground water quality of various districts in Sindh showed that the pH of water samples was within limits of WHO, while turbidity and most of the chemical parameters were above the critical limits [ 32 ].
Water shortage is a major issue in Karachi city, which is worse in slum areas having poor infrastructure and limited facilities. The physicochemical analysis of drinking water supply lines in Orangi Town, Karachi, showed that physicochemical characteristics were within WHO permissible limits except sulphates. The microbial investigation revealed that all samples were highly contaminated with total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli. The presence of microbial contamination indicated poor water supply and sewage infrastructure [ 31 ]. Microbial and physicochemical parameters of water supplied by WASA in Gulshan-e-Iqbal demonstrated that the pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity, TDS, and As were satisfactory to the guidelines of WHO but only three samples were contaminated with microbes because of leakage water mains and cross-connections between drinking water supply lines and sewage [ 34 ] as shown in Table 6 .
Qualitative analysis of water resources that are used for drinking purposes showed that the physical parameters of three sampling sites such as bore well, dug well, and hand pumps were not according to the recommendations of PEPA and WHO [ 97 ]. But, however, samples collected from tube well were according to the PEPA and WHO [ 97 ] recommendations. Turbidity was found in the samples collected from hand pumps, bore well, and dug well but tube well water samples were found to be turbidity-free. The EC and contents of TS, TDS, and TSS were above the WHO [ 97 ] recommendations in the samples collected from hand pumps, bore well, and dug well. All these parameters of samples collected from tube well water were within WHO limits [ 65 ].
Drinking water quality of the Sindh province is also poor as that of other provinces. About 67%–93% of samples collected from different locations in three main cities, that is, Sukkur, Hyderabad, and Karachi, showed that water is unsafe for drinking purposes due to microbial and chemical contamination [ 2 ]. Guidelines for drinking water WHO [ 98 ] and National Standards for Drinking Water for Pakistan NSDWQ [ 99 ] recommend that E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteria must not be detectable in all water directly intended for drinking. However, total and fecal coliform bacteria were detected in samples collected from drinking water supply of Badin city and the water samples were found to be unfit for drinking [ 100 ].
The pH value of Keenjhar lake, located in Theta, Sindh, was within limits but color was brown to dark brown which is not acceptable for drinking purposes. The EC values of the samples were found to be above the WHO permissible limits.
8. Human Health Impacts
Due to the poor sanitation system, treatment, and monitoring, drinking water quality deteriorates. The presence of toxic chemicals and bacteria in drinking water causes adverse effect on human health. Due to the fecal contamination, people have been suffering from waterborne diseases. In rural and urban areas of Pakistan, cases of waterborne diseases, typhoid, dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis are systematically reported. However, it is very difficult to properly quantify the danger due to several reasons. They include underreporting of diseases and poor record maintenance in healthcare centers and hospitals related to diseases caused by poor water quality [ 101 ].
Several studies have reported health-related problems due to poor drinking water quality. For example, the concentration of nitrate (NO 3 ) was found above the permissible limits causing blue baby syndrome in bottle fed babies [ 44 ]. The average daily intake of potassium (K) by adults was noted to be less than 0.1% through water [ 102 ]. Significant quantity of K is very important, the same as other elements for proper functioning of body. Diseases such as hypertension, kidney diseases, heart problem, muscle weakness, bladder weakness, and asthma may be caused due to K level decreasing in blood and increase in level may cause cysts, reduced renal function, rapid heartbeat, and improper metabolism of proteins [ 103 ]. The major source of sodium (Na) is the deposition of minerals into the water. Decrease in Na level in body causes low blood pressure, fatigue, mental apathy, and depression and increase in level may cause brain stroke, kidney problem, nausea, headaches, hypertension, and stomach problem [ 104 ]. Cardiovascular disease may be caused by the basic cations deficiency such as calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) [ 105 ]. The basic and important element for myoglobin and hemoglobin and for numerous other enzymes is iron (Fe). The higher level of Fe in body also causes many health problems such as weakening of cardiovascular tissue, central nervous system, kidney, and liver, blood problems, vomiting, and diarrhea [ 106 ].
In Peshawar, most of water samples were found to be contaminated with coliform bacteria. In Rawalpindi, the gastroenteritis was reported in 2000; the contaminated water was the source. In Karachi, it was also found that the drinking water samples were heavily contaminated with total and fecal coliform. In Khairpur, a city of 0.12-million population, water quality seems to be poor and therefore could be a potential source for waterborne diseases especially among children.
In Islamabad and Rawalpindi, 4000 cases of hepatitis were registered and were due to unfit drinking water and improper treatment [ 107 ]. Dental fluorosis was also found in many districts such as Raiwind, Pattoki, and Kasur [ 43 ]. Effluents coming from tanneries contaminate the ground water in Kasur and cause skin and abdominal problems [ 108 ].
Unsafe drinking water is a major cause of the disease, which otherwise may be prevented, in particular in young children in developing countries. Pathogens present in drinking water including many viral, bacterial, and protozoan agents caused 2.5 million deaths from endemic diarrheal disease each year [ 9 ]. Major health problems were reported as gastroenteritis (40%–50%), diarrhea (47%–59%), dysentery (28–35%), hepatitis A (32%–38%), hepatitis B (16%–19%), and hepatitis C (6-7%) by respondents [ 29 ]. In southern Sind, waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, vomiting, gastroenteritis, dysentery, and kidney problem are caused by polluted drinking water [ 109 ].
9. Management Strategies
Management strategies should cover protection of sources from contamination, drinking water distribution lines upgradation and their proper maintenance, and monitoring and awareness of the people [ 110 ].
9.1. Legislative Control
There is a poor framework for the legislation of drinking water supplies. Drinking water quality standards should be provisionally established for the treatment and maintenance of drinking water distribution system. Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) should take action with the help of private institutions to protect water resources and control pollution from its source. A great attention is also required to stop the saline water intrusion into the fresh ground water resources.
9.2. Governance
Government should take action for the maintenance, proper functioning, and handling of already present drinking water treatment plants. There is a lack of proper sampling system of the drinking water treatment plants to ensure that water is safe and fit for drinking in urban areas of Pakistan. To stop the spread of waterborne diseases, there is need for proper functioning, inspection, and sampling analysis twice a year to ensure safe drinking water according to the quality standards.
Proper maintenance of water distribution system and chlorination should be done according to the law and regulations to kill pathogens. Government should provide the latest and reliable instruments and trained personals for the drinking water quality analysis.
In Pakistan, there are few industries that have their own water treatment plant to treat wastewater. Government should take strict action for their industrial effluent disposal according to the NEQS under the 1997 Act. If any industry is found to be violating the rules, it should be punished with heavy fine and imprisonment.
9.3. General
Public awareness campaigns should be started at school, college, university, and community level to address the significance of secure drinking water. NGOs might act in this facet. Rural communities should adopt safe control methods for protecting water storage in houses and simple disinfection technologies of drinking water.
A lot of studies show that boiled drinking water reduces risk of waterborne diseases [ 111 , 112 ]. A study was conducted by [ 113 ] in three districts of Punjab’s urban as well as rural areas, that is, Toba-Tek Singh, Multan, and Rawalpindi. All the samples were collected through multistage sampling technique. The outcomes indicated that 45.1% of population of these three districts were not using National Quality Standards to improve water quality and these people were suffering from diarrhea. The remaining population of these three districts use National Quality Standards and were not found ill. Social and economic conditions of the families also play a vital role in reduction of diarrheal disease. It is also seen that mother’s education, household income, and living style are correlated to the quality of drinking water and also improve health status of the family.
10. Conclusion
This review documented the studies conducted in Pakistan on drinking water quality status and contamination, which accounted sewerage water (fecal) mixing with drinking water as dominant and primary contaminant due to the poor sanitation and sewerage system. Second source of contamination is chemical pollution from toxic substances from the industrial effluents, textile dyes, pesticides, nitrogenous fertilizers, arsenic, and other chemicals. There is a need to maintain and upgrade regular inspection of already present treatment plants. Nowadays, Government of Pakistan is going to install drinking water filter all over Pakistan. The results drew attention that sewerage contamination with drinking water must be considered as an important environmental and health issue.
Conflicts of Interest
All authors declare having no conflicts of interest regarding the publishing of this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was funded by the National Natural Science Fund (Project no. 31501342) of China (2013AA102601).
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Water Scarcity in Pakistan, its Effects, Causes and Solutions
‘One of the most water-stressed countries in the world, not far from being classified as water scarce’, Pakistan faces an existential threat- one that could potentially hobble its already modest economic growth. In a country where growth is largely driven by agriculture, a shortage of water could have serious ramifications. Pakistan’s storage capacity, ideally recommended to hover around 1,000 days given its climate, stands at a meagre 30-day supply (“Water storage capacity just for 30 days”, 2013). With water availability on the decline and high rates of population growth, Pakistan appears to be destined to make the transition to a water scarce country.
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Investigation of irrigation water requirement and evapotranspiration for water resource management in southern punjab, pakistan.
1. Introduction
2. materials and method, 2.1. study area, 2.2. satellite data and image classification, 2.3. cropwat 8.0 model description, 2.4. data requirement, 2.5. reference evapotranspiration (et 0 ), 2.6. crop water requirement (cwr), 2.7. irrigation water requirement (ir), 2.8. irrigation schedule, 3.1. urbanization and land cover changes, 3.2. climate change in multan region, 3.3. effective rainfall estimation and reference evapotranspiration, 3.4. crop water requirement of cotton, wheat and rice, 3.5. irrigation scheduling and net irrigation requirement (nir), 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
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Share and Cite
Hussain, S.; Mubeen, M.; Nasim, W.; Fahad, S.; Ali, M.; Ehsan, M.A.; Raza, A. Investigation of Irrigation Water Requirement and Evapotranspiration for Water Resource Management in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 1768. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031768
Hussain S, Mubeen M, Nasim W, Fahad S, Ali M, Ehsan MA, Raza A. Investigation of Irrigation Water Requirement and Evapotranspiration for Water Resource Management in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. Sustainability . 2023; 15(3):1768. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031768
Hussain, Sajjad, Muhammad Mubeen, Wajid Nasim, Shah Fahad, Musaddiq Ali, Muhammad Azhar Ehsan, and Ali Raza. 2023. "Investigation of Irrigation Water Requirement and Evapotranspiration for Water Resource Management in Southern Punjab, Pakistan" Sustainability 15, no. 3: 1768. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031768
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- Fri. Mar 10th, 2023
World Bank Report on Water Scarcity in Pakistan Emphasizes Severity of Problem
By Troy Van Buskirk Barter
In 2019, the World Bank published its report on water scarcity and water security in Pakistan. These two terms refer to the water available to each person based on the total supply, and the overall access and safety of the available water respectively. The report highlights two main reasons for the increasing severity of this issue: the huge increase in population, and poor management and allocation of water resources. These two issues are interconnected and the latter problem impinges on the former. The report notes that “water scarcity is challenging but does not define a country’s economic destiny.” It points out that there are a number of countries that are more water-scarce than Pakistan but which have higher GDPs per capita. The water scarcity and security problem in Pakistan is best understood as a human rights issue. Water is a fundamental human right according to the United Nations , and while the complexities of fixing Pakistan’s water problem are numerous, the primary cause of the problem is failed governance.
In 1960, Pakistan negotiated its official treaty for water usage with India in the Indus Waters Treaty. The report notes how the increasing population makes the usage of water more and more limited. Indeed, since 1960 the population of Pakistan has nearly quintupled from roughly 45 million to 217 million in 2019. The report states that “Because of sustained and rapid population growth, relative water availability has shrunk to less than a quarter of what of it was half a century ago.”
However, as noted above, the increase in population does not imply that Pakistan cannot reduce its water security problems. The report underlines the mismanagement of the water resources, notably “(i) poor water data, information, and analysis; (ii) weak processes for water resources planning and allocation; (iii) environmentally unsustainable levels of water withdrawal; (iv) widespread pollution; and (v) low water productivity in agriculture” as a significant reason for these issues being so dire. The last of these is particularly alarming but also appears to be one way to make a significant difference if rectified. The report points out that only four crops collectively use 80% of the country’s water, yet account for only 5% of its economy. The report notes later on that “the economic productivity of water is very low, especially in agriculture,” while also drawing attention to the poor government systems that lack communication and make efficient use of water difficult.
The author spoke to Yusma Khan, a Pakistani-American dual citizen residing in the U.S. who has lived in Pakistan much of her life and has family living there currently. She informed that water is and has, for many years, been an issue of human rights in Pakistan. She remembers learning as a child about predictions of Pakistan’s water supply being unreliable by 2025. She also recounted a time when her family’s maid discussed people from her village having issues with their teeth, as the water that ran through their village was tainted by salt. Yusma further noted that even bottled water in a village had the ability to make her feel ill as it was not treated properly. The World Bank reports that illnesses and injuries caused by lack of access to clean water cause “An estimated 20 percent to 40 percent of hospital admissions and a large proportion of infant deaths.” There are numerous other ways in which we can see the suffering caused by water insecurity and scarcity. For example, the report notes the civil conflicts and migration that can be initiated by water insecurity. It also points out the gender discrimination implications of schools effectively forcing girls to not attend school during menstruation due to “Poor sanitation facilities in schools.” This is a clear example of an abuse of power and neglect of poverty by the Pakistani government. Yusma also informed that she believes the failure of the government to act is the primary reason for the situation becoming so dire. The report emphasizes this in detail, stating “Federal systems for water governance often have a complex patchwork of institutions, policies, and legal provisions at provincial and national levels.”
Yusma also emphasized that climate change is another key cause for the severity of the scarcity and security of water. The World Bank report acknowledges that climate change will create significant problems in the future such as “the risk of flood damage”, and that it is already the cause for “increasing flood frequencies in the Indus Basin.”
A similar threat looms large on the glacial systems as well. According to the Guardian, they are melting because of climate change, and the “ buffering role ” they play to supply water during summer when there is less rain could be eliminated, meaning significant water shortages. The Guardian notes that this could lead to migration, although the World Bank report points out that “Long-term migration because of water stress and climate change has received significant attention in the popular press; however, little quantitative evidence exists. Heat stress appears to be a stronger predictor of migration.”
The future impact on humans by climate change is addressed by the report as well. It notes that there are numerous inevitable consequences on human practices and livelihoods “unless the targets of the Paris Agreement are achieved.” These include an “increase [] of deadly heatwaves by the end of the century,” specifically in “Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan.” Yusma mentioned the latter two of these regions being at significant risk. The report also states that “without improved demand management severe water shortages will increase.” It also points out that rising temperatures will drive increased demand for water in industrial sectors. It is worth including that there is no data currently available for Pakistan’s progress towards achieving their Paris Agreement mitigation goals, but very few countries are on target to reach these goals. Heatwaves and shortages in water mean that people are going to continue dying and at greater rates unless significant progress is made.
Water scarcity and water security are two major issues in Pakistan. The 2019 report by the World Bank explained the complicated and severe nature of the problem. Most noteworthy is the mismanagement of water resources, and a large increase in population. Climate change, an issue which has unfortunately been seemingly put on hold by the international community amid the devastating pandemic, will only make the water scarcity and security situation in Pakistan worse unless significant work is done by many, especially those in power.
Troy Van Buskirk Barter is a recent graduate of Occidental College in Los Angeles. He is very passionate about global issues of human rights, social movements, and politics. His experience includes field research done in Buenos Aires interviewing butcher shop owners about how their businesses had been affected by the Paris Climate Agreement, in an effort to better understand the effects of international agreements on micro-level economies.
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Pakistan’s looming water crisis
Author: Aneel Salman, COMSATS University Islamabad
In 2025, Pakistan may face an acute water crisis . To avoid this outcome, Pakistan must frame a rational, politically unbiased and holistic water policy that reflects its priorities of growth and development. The problem is not due to water availability, but the mismanagement of water resources.
In 2021, the government of Pakistan’s Sindh province received 5.38 million acre-feet (MAF) of irrigated water, which is a 35 per cent decline in its share in provincial allocation. Red chilli, cotton and rice crops have suffered the most due to the shortage. The decline in provincial allocation was a political move despite the Pakistan Meteorologist Department claiming that this decrease is due to climate change .
Under the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan, Pakistan gave up its control over three eastern tributaries of the Indus River, which is one of the root causes of the water crisis. The total inflow of water in the Indus River System was 117 MAF before the treaty. Now, Pakistan receives only 80 MAF, which is allocated to Pakistan’s provinces under the Water Allocation Strategy . This allocation deals in terms of numbers, not water quality, which is different in every region . Both of these crucial variables were missing in the treaty.
Currently, 97 per cent of the fresh water in Pakistan is used in the agriculture sector, which makes up 18 per cent of Pakistan’s GDP. Bad agriculture choices, flood irrigation, a lack of hybrid seeding and poor water management are putting a heavy burden on water resources. There are several issues with water management, including a lack of basin-wise water resource management and no proper system to stop evaporation and pilferage ( 40 per cent of water is lost ). Pakistan also faces the challenges of 13 per cent of the cultivable land being saline and 30 per cent of agricultural land being waterlogged.
There is no policy for the mangroves which require a constant inflow of fresh water to stay alive to prevent sea incursion and there has been no melting in the glaciers for the past two years. The frequency of seasonal and tropical storms have increased, which has resulted in severe flooding in coastal areas including Karachi and Keti Bunder. Interprovincial rivalry further aggravates the situation. In 2005, a team of international consultants gave their analysis and redesigned water demands for the Indus Delta. It was agreed that 10 MAF would be given to Sindh, but the question remained: how?
Pakistan’s water issues are due to ineffective management. Unequal access and distribution, growing population, urbanisation, progressive industrialisation, lack of storage capacity and climate risk makes water management a difficult task. Climate change has been causing shifts in the weather pattern in different parts of the country, which requires area-specific solutions, not a generic policy. Since the 1980s, domestic water supply and irrigation management have become more participatory and privatised with a focus on physical targets rather than on capacity building. This has benefited the economic and political elite and has deprived poor farmers of their due access to irrigated water.
Pakistan can only store 10 per cent of the average annual flow of its rivers, which is far below the world average storage capacity of 40 per cent. Pakistan had been water-abundant in the past (almost 6000 cubic metres per capita in 1960), but now has become a water-stressed country with 1017 cubic meter per capita .
Water governance in Pakistan needs to be reassessed and made more compatible with other public policies. Pakistan’s first National Water Policy in 2018 does not pay enough attention to water sensitive urban designs, risk management against natural hazards and trade in water-intensive crops. Any policy to address these challenges should include customised, location-specific solutions which can deal with the topographical, source water body, receiving water body and socioeconomic context of the setting.
Water storage and management should be the focus of the government, along with transparent assessments undertaken in every province about water inflow and outflow. There must be a strong political will to stop Pakistan from entering a water crisis. Otherwise, Pakistan will face what we see in apocalypse movies, an extinction-level event.
Aneel Salman is Director of the Faculty Development Academy at COMSATS University Islamabad.
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Why is Pakistan running dry?
Pakistan could "run dry" by 2025 as its water shortage is reaching an alarming level. The authorities remain negligent about the crisis that's posing a serious threat to the country's stability, reports Shah Meer Baloch.
According to a recent report by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan ranks third in the world among countries facing acute water shortage. Reports by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) also warn the authorities that the South Asian country will reach absolute water scarcity by 2025.
"No person in Pakistan, whether from the north with its more than 5,000 glaciers, or from the south with its 'hyper deserts,' will be immune to this [scarcity]," said Neil Buhne, UN humanitarian coordinator for Pakistan.
Researchers predict that Pakistan is on its way to becoming the most water-stressed country in the region by the year 2040.
It is not the first time that development and research organizations have alerted Pakistani authorities about an impending crisis, which some analysts say poses a bigger threat to the country than terrorism.
In 2016, PCRWR reported that Pakistan touched the "water stress line" in 1990 and crossed the "water scarcity line" in 2005. If this situation persists, Pakistan is likely to face an acute water shortage or a drought-like situation in the near future, according to PCRWR, which is affiliated with the South Asian country's Ministry of Science and Technology.
A water-intensive country
Pakistan has the world's fourth-highest rate of water use. Its water intensity rate — the amount of water, in cubic meters, used per unit of GDP — is the world's highest. This suggests that no country's economy is more water-intensive than Pakistan's.
According to the IMF, Pakistan's per capita annual water availability is 1,017 cubic meters — perilously close to the scarcity threshold of 1,000 cubic meters. Back in 2009, Pakistan's water availability was about 1,500 cubic meters.
The bulk of Pakistan's farmland is irrigated through a canal system, but the IMF says in a report that canal water is vastly underpriced, recovering only a quarter of annual operating and maintenance costs. Meanwhile, agriculture, which consumes almost all annual available surface water, is largely untaxed.
Experts say that population growth and urbanization are the main reasons behind the crisis. The issue has also been exacerbated by climate change, poor water management and a lack of political will to deal with the crisis.
"Pakistan is approaching the scarcity threshold for water. What is even more disturbing is that groundwater supplies — the last resort of water supply — are being rapidly depleted. And worst of all is that the authorities have given no indication that they plan to do anything about any of this," Michael Kugelman, South Asia expert at the Washington-based Woodrow Wilson Center, told DW in a 2015 interview .
Qazi Talhat, a secretary at the Ministry of Water Resources, told DW the situation is "scary" for Pakistan.
Water scarcity is also triggering security conflicts in the country. Experts say the economic impact of the water crisis is immense, and the people are fighting for resources.
Climate change
Water scarcity in Pakistan has been accompanied by rising temperatures. In May, at least 65 people died from heatstroke in the southern city of Karachi. In 2015, at least 1,200 people died during a spate of extremely hot weather .
"Heat waves and droughts in Pakistan are a result of climate change," Mian Ahmed Naeem Salik, an environmental expert and research fellow at the Institute of Strategic Studies in Islamabad, told DW.
"The monsoon season has become erratic in the past few years. The winter season has shrunk from four to two months in many parts of the country. On top of it, Pakistan cannot save floodwater due to a scarcity of dams," Salik said. "At the time of Pakistan's birth in 1947, forests accounted for about 5 percent of the nation's area, but they have now dropped to only 2 percent. Pakistan must invest in building water reservoirs and plant more trees," he added.
Read more: How climate change is aggravating Pakistan's water crisis
Water politics
The Tarbela and Mangla dams, the country's two major water reservoirs, reached their "dead" levels last week, according to media reports. The news sparked a debate on social media over the inaction of authorities in the face of this crisis.
"We have only two big reservoirs and we can save water only for 30 days. India can store water for 190 days whereas the US can do it for 900 days," Muhammad Khalid Rana, a spokesman for the Indus River System Authority (IRSA), told DW.
"Pakistan receives around 145 million acre feet of water every year but can only save 13.7 million acre feet. Pakistan needs 40 million acre feet of water but 29 million acre feet of our floodwater is wasted because we have few dams. New Delhi raised this issue with international bodies, arguing that it should be allowed to use the western rivers because Pakistan can't use them properly," Rana said.
In 1960, the World Bank brokered the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) that gives Pakistan exclusive rights to use the region's western rivers — Indus, Jhelum and Chenaub — while India has the authority over three eastern rivers.
The Pakistani government says New Delhi is not fulfilling its responsibilities under the IWT as it voices concerns over India's construction of new dams. New Delhi is building the Kishangaga hydroelectric plant in the north of Bandipore in India-administered Jammu and Kashmir region. In May, Islamabad approached the World Bank complaining that India violated the IWT by building the dam on a Jehlum River basin, which it lays claim on.
Kugelman says that the Pakistani authorities need to step up efforts to overcome the water crisis, which is partly man-made. "First of all, Pakistan's leaders and stakeholders need to take ownership of this challenge and declare their intention to tackle it. Simply blaming previous governments, or blaming India, for the crisis won't solve anything. Next, the government needs to institute a major paradigm shift that promotes more judicious use of water," Kugelman emphasized.
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Wastage of water
Apart from the water storage issue, experts say that water wastage is also a big issue in the country. Abid Suleri, executive director of the Islamabad-based Sustainable Development Policy Institute, says the mismanagement takes place at many levels.
As the water crisis worsens in Pakistan, foreign diplomats and activists have taken to social media, urging people to save water.
"Using a bucket to save water while washing my car! #Pakistan ranks third amongst countries facing water shortage. One major reason is excessive use. 100 liters wasted washing a car with running tap water. Many ways to #SaveWater in our daily life! #SaveWaterforPak," Martin Kobler, German ambassador to Pakistan, wrote on Twitter.
In April, former PM Shahid Khaqan Abbasi announced Pakistan's first National Water Policy, promising consolidated efforts to tackle the water crisis.
But experts are skeptical about the authorities will to deal with the issue. The country will hold general elections on July 25 and there is an interim government currently in place. Water crisis is a priority neither for the caretaker government nor for the political parties contesting the polls.
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Water crisis in Pakistan: Facts and solutions
Muhammad Azhad Zulfiqar
August 07, 2020
One of the most pressing issues that Pakistan faces at the moment is the water crisis . Pakistan is predominantly an agrarian country, with most of the economy dependent on water to grow crops. But ominously, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan is the third most affected country in terms of water scarcity. If problem of water shortage prevails, it might have drastic and long-ranging geo-political, financial and ecological effects on Pakistan.
Pakistan’s water originates from a number of sources. Around 60 percent of our total rainwater is derived from the monsoon rains, but a significant proportion also comes from the winter rainfall. In addition, Pakistan has a lot of glaciers which feed the river system in Pakistan. River Indus and its tributaries provide most of the water needed for irrigation. Glacial melt off has been affected due to climate change, increasing risks of flooding.
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Pakistan’s surface and groundwater resources are depleting rapidly. By 2016, surface water availability per capita had fallen close to 1000 cubic centimeters and is expected to decrease even further. Pakistan is considered to have crossed the “water scarcity line” in 2005, according to Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR). The problem of water shortage has worsened terribly due to the alarming rate of water usage in Pakistan – the fourth highest in the world – while the water intensity rate (the amount of water used per unit GDP) is, unsettlingly, the highest in the world.
The Tarbela and Mangla Dams are the only big dams in Pakistan which can store floodwater. By 2018, both had reached their “dead” levels, meaning that they do not have enough water to operate. According to Muhammad Khalid Rana, from the Indus River System Authority (IRSA), Pakistan is extremely short on reservoirs and can only save water for 30 days. Furthermore, he states that Pakistan receives almost 145 million acre feet of water but can only save 13.7 million acre feet of water. He goes on to say Pakistan needs 40 million acre feet of water but 29 acre feet is wasted due to lack of dams.
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The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) warn of absolute water scarcity and a drought by 2025 if such problems prevail. Recently the sources of Pakistan’s water are becoming unpredictable. As such, Mian Ahmed Naeem Salik from the Institute of Strategic Studies reports, that in the past few years the monsoon season in Pakistan has become erratic. Moreover the winter season has shrunk as well from four to two months in most parts of the country. On top of that Pakistan is unable to save precious floodwater due to scarcity of dams.
In lieu of such a situation measures need to be taken to conserve water and solve this impending water crisis . The first step that should be taken is to provide awareness programs for the public so that they may try their best to conserve water. The people of Pakistan should be well informed about the situation, so that they may be able to save maximum amount of gallons of water as they possibly can.
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Furthermore, as we are short on reservoirs and dams, the Government should initiate projects for more large-scale dams. One such example is the Diamer-Bhasha Dam for which funds were being collected. The Government must invest in large-scale dam projects so we may be able to save much required floodwater.
Moreover, cost effective measures for saving water should be implemented at domestic level. The Government should make use of technology based methods to prevent leakage in pipes and keep water usage in check. Smart irrigation methods should be used to reduce water wastage drastically, rather than wasting lots of groundwater through tube wells.
We should utilize other methods to trap rainwater and use it to recharge underground aquifers, ensuring more water for the future. In essence, increased attention and funds towards this quandary is required from the Government. If such measures are not taken with swiftness and alacrity Pakistan will find itself in a highly perplexing conundrum.
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The author is a student at Aitchison College, Lahore.
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Today's Paper | March 10, 2023
The biggest problem.
The first step is always the same: admitting you have a problem. Once the denial is overcome, the problem solving can begin. But how can you admit you have a problem when you still don’t have the right words to talk about it?
Pakistan’s big — arguably, biggest — problem is water scarcity. The country faces acute water scarcity by 2025, and will be the most water-stressed country in South Asia within two decades. Almost 30 million Pakistanis have no access to clean water. But you may not know this because we have yet to articulate a compelling narrative about the water crisis.
One would think that the best way to spur discourse on water scarcity would be to focus on basic human rights: the right to access clean water, food and maintain hygiene. The UN recently reiterated that water shortages are affecting three billion people globally, and that billions face hunger. But in increasingly polarised, populist polities, such appeals fall on deaf ears.
Another approach could be to emphasise that Pakistan’s water crisis is in fact a failure in water management, an example of our governments’ and bureaucracy’s inability to deliver basic services. Studies argue that Pakistan’s water scarcity can be addressed through data gathering, improved efficiency, reduced losses and improved sowing. More and better-coordinated government initiatives and subsidies, such as the drip irrigation scheme in Punjab, are needed. The 2018 National Water Policy needs a revamp, and aggressive implementation.
The issue of water scarcity needs a new narrative.
But the water management argument is best made by experts and has not caught the public imagination. For example, researcher Uzair Sattar rightly pointed out that the public commission report into the cartelisation and corruption of the sugar industry released earlier this year covered various angles — subsidies, political influence, tax evasion — but barely touched on the crucial link between sugar and water. Sugar is among the most water-intensive crops; the obsession with being a top-five sugar producer is driving the water crisis.
The national debate on malnourishment — which affects one-third of Pakistani children — also fails to make the link with water scarcity. Malnourishment is highest in Pakistan’s irrigated districts, according to academic Daanish Mustafa, where agriculturalists prioritise growing cash crops for export over domestic food security.
Water is also required for raw materials such as cotton that drive lucrative, export-oriented sectors like textiles. Run out of water, and the dream of becoming an economic powerhouse evaporates too. But we have yet to frame the issue this way. Instead, but not surprisingly, we have securitised the narrative about water scarcity. Water scarcity has been reframed as the predecessor of food shortages, which would lead to riots and civil unrest (never mind malnutrition and hunger).
Alternatively, water scarcity is portrayed as a trigger for cross-border conflict, as if the former were somehow less devastating than the latter. The water-equals-war drum beats particularly loudly when it comes to the Indus, which flows across Pakistan, India and China, three nuclear-armed nations poised for conflict along various fault lines.
Let’s assume the only way to keep an issue such as water scarcity in the headlines and on politicians’ agendas is by securitising it; the gradual ravage of land and populations is not made for the 24/7 news cycle or the short-termism that five-year electoral cycles engender. Even then, Pakistan’s security apparatus is not taking a holistic enough approach by tackling water scarcity as a national security priority.
Recent developments such as the launch of the National Intelligence Coordination Committee suggests that threats are still narrowly conceived in the form of hostile nations, non-state actors or terrorism, espionage, and domestic dissent or insurgency. Mentions of water as a security challenge are closely tied to concerns of Indian aggression (recently fuelled by Indian threats to violate the Indus Waters Treaty). In this paradigm, water flow is a mere precursor to conventional — or nuclear — warfare.
If Pakistan is to rally around the need to address water scarcity, it needs a new narrative. Water needs to be reframed, most importantly, as a citizen’s basic right, but also as a political priority, central to our prosperity. We need more water experts on talk shows, public-awareness campaigns, and a major focus on water conservation in our school and university curriculums.
The Pakistan Fisherfolk Forum is campaigning for the Indus River to be granted personhood, and associated rights. Many see the idea as too radical to manifest. But it indicates the desperation of those most affected by water scarcity. It might be just the new narrative we need to talk about our most pressing problem.
The writer is a freelance journalist.
Twitter: @humayusuf
Published in Dawn, November 30th, 2020
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Water Crisis in Pakistan; Causes and Effects
How much water is left at my disposal for my personal needs? This is the most pertinent question today for a single Pakistani who still cannot judge what kind of water crisis in Pakistan people will face in the next five years.
The IMF report suggests that Pakistan’s per capita water availability is 1,017 cubic meters, whereas it was 1500 cubic meters in 2009. In the coming years, it will further deplete to 1000 cubic meters.
By the way, one cubic meter of water is equal to 1000 liters. So 1000 cubic meters means 1 million liters. And if you further scrutinize the 1000 liters of water, a general global perception makes it equivalent to;
- 3,300 cup teas
- Flushing the toilet more than 100 times
An IMF report says Pakistan is in the number three position in the list of countries that face acute water shortages. And there are also reports from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR), which reveal similar statistics.
By 2025 Pakistan will reach a level of absolute water scarcity. This wouldn’t only hit the south’s deserts but also the North as well that is known for snow-filled mountains and more than 5000 glaciers, Neil Buhne, UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Pakistan, describes in the report.
The situation is further expected to worsen by 2040 when Pakistan might become the most water-stressed country in the region.
These warnings don’t come out as a sudden revelation, but the national and international organizations have been alerting Pakistani governments for decades.
A 2016 report by PCRWR highlights that Pakistan had already touched the water stress line in 1990, and by 2005, it had crossed the red area, i.e., “water scarcity line.” Today in 2019, the situation has far more worsened.
A World Economic Forum report mentions water as a significant threat for Pakistan, followed by inflation, terrorism, and unplanned urbanization.
Such a horrific picture gave rise to a national debate on the water more recently in 2018, and the issue was hammered again and again in the media after the Chief Justice of Pakistan followed by the PTI government took notice of the matter and started a crowdsourcing campaign for the construction of Bhasha dam. Pakistanis living abroad and here have responded positively to the cause, and by January 31, 2019, the joint fundraising account of Apex Court and Government of Pakistan has accumulated Rs. 9,714,508,498.
Understanding The Water Scarcity
According to the Un-Water , a United Nations agency that coordinate with UN countries on water and sanitation issues describes water scarcity as the physical shortage of water supply, shortage of water due to inadequate infrastructure or the scarcity of water due to the failure of government organization in providing adequate water supply in a particular region.
The Fallenmark formula suggests that water availability under 1000 cubic meters/capita/ year limits the population’s economic growth and health, where Pakistan already stands at this moment. It’s a real constraint to life when it goes under the 500 cubic meters threshold, calling it an “absolute scarcity.”
His study references Israel for this conclusion, where dynamics of water availability, population, usage pattern, and consumption areas are entirely different from Pakistan.
Pakistan, among the most water-wasting countries
The global studies rank Pakistan at number 4th among the most water-consuming countries. Being an agriculture-dependent country, Pakistan hugely relies on its canal network. Water is highly underpriced to the extent that not more than a quarter of the annual operational and maintenance cost is recovered.
Out of total demand in Pakistan, nearly 90% of the water is consumed by agriculture and industry. Our main supply line of the Indus Basin originates from the Mount Kailash range in Tibet that runs into the Arabian Sea.
Other than the international water controversy with India, political differences among provinces, lack of seriousness from the governments in the center don’t allow us to build additional large-scale reservoirs along the route, which only results in the wastage of precious water every year.
Pakistan receives around 145 million acre-feet of water every year but only saves 13.7 million acre-feet in its fragile storage system.
Dependence on only a few national dams, including Tarbela and Mangla, which have lost their original capacities of water storage ever since their inception, can a single Bhasha dam help us store water for all our needs is still a question?
The obsolete canal network, water theft by influentials to their farmlands, unplanned and gigantic urbanization, deforestation under the nose of policymakers, and domestic water abuse only add fuel to the fire.
Domestic water abuse
All major metropolitan cities of Pakistan, including Lahore and Karachi, have the least drinkable water availability. Half a century-old water supply lines to most urban areas are rusty and cracked, allowing sewerage water to seep into the drinking water lines in many old parts of the cities.
Lack of awareness among the people about the water crisis in Pakistan also shows massive helplessness on our part.
At homes, we still don’t get frightened to waste water while washing our garage, cars even the gates, every day.
Taps run freely, losing hundreds of liters every day in a house.
One of the primary reasons for such irresponsible behavior is the costing mechanism.
In contrast to electricity, the monthly charges for water supply are extremely nominal, making it almost a useless commodity in consumers’ eyes.
A recent ban from the Lahore High Court on washing cars at homes using the hose pipes couldn’t bring fruits. Even a prior court order to only allow registered service stations to operate that will use water recycling facility hasn’t been implemented.
Not only it happens in our homes, but the civic institutions also turn a blind eye. It was recently revealed during a court hearing that Lahore Waste Management Company washes the Lahore city roads with drinkable water wasting some 30,500 liters every day .
There is hardly an effort from previous governments in the past 50 years to organize the water consumption and supply line.
Un-Water also believes there is no global water shortage globally; it is the lackluster performances of individual countries and their inabilities that endanger their survival.
If the situation in Pakistan isn’t handled from the very core, it will jeopardize not only the lives of average Pakistanis but also an economic meltdown that could be witnessed in the country.
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4 thoughts on “water crisis in pakistan; causes and effects”.
We need to teach our children about this crisis that how they can save water in their lives. The elder generation has done nothing but wasted it and we have nothing left to give to our children. We can still improve the situation if we act constructively.
Yes, it is hunger needs to teach everybody around us
yes that right
water sector projects from public sector funding have never been evaluated in meaningful PC-V format so the success and failure stories are not known. The outcome path, therefore, has yet to be set. High time to find realistic measures for storage of water and its careful use. Need water expert on key positions instead of plain PAS personnel on all water sector institutions.
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According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Pakistan ranked third among the countries facing severe water shortage. In May 2018, the Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) announced that by 2025, there will be very little or no clean water available in the country (Shukla 2018).It must be noted that while per capita availability in the 1950s was approximately 5000 m 3 ...
Water Scarcity An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures January 2015 Authors: Salim Khoso University of Toledo Abdul Aziz Ansari Mehran...
Pakistan has surface water potential of 140 million acre feet (MAF) and underground water reserve of 56 MAF. It is one of the most water-stressed countries in the world. The per capita annual availability of water has reduced from 5140 m3 in 1950 to 1000 m3 now. It is fast approaching towards water scarcity.
Pakistan ranks 14 out of 17 "extremely high water risk" countries in the world, as the country wastes one-third of water available. More than 80 percent of the country's population faces...
en Pakistan's economy is primarily dependent on agriculture, but it faces serious water challenges. This paper critically evaluates the water resources and socio‐economic and environmental...
It is apparent that Pakistan's water supplies are diminishing, and Pakistan must seriously consider the water crisis (F aheem & Khan, 2018). Water scarcity, mismanagement, rapid population increase, and climatic changes are all difficulties that India's water supplies suffer, just like Pakistan. The total amount of water available per person in ...
In addition to surface water, Pakistan's groundwater resources—the last resort of water supply—are severely overdrawn, mainly to supply water for irrigation. If the situation remains unchanged, the whole country may face 'water scarcity' by 2025.
Water pollution is one of the major threats to public health in Pakistan. Drinking water quality is poorly managed and monitored. Pakistan ranks at number 80 among 122 nations regarding drinking water quality. Drinking water sources, both surface and groundwater are contaminated with coliforms, toxi …
To estimate the development of blue water scarcity in Pakistan for the period 1971 to 2020, we compared annual water runoff in the natural system to the annual total of sectoral blue WFs. ... PIDE Working Papers, 79, Pakistan research institute of development economics, Islamabad, Pakistan (2011) Google Scholar [24] E. Sánchez-Triana, D ...
Due to alarming increase in population and rapid industrialization, drinking water quality is being deteriorated day by day in Pakistan. This review sums up the outcomes of various research studies conducted for drinking water quality status of different areas of Pakistan by taking into account the physicochemical properties of drinking water as well as the presence of various pathogenic ...
Water Scarcity in Pakistan, its Effects, Causes and Solutions INTRODUCTION 'One of the most water-stressed countries in the world, not far from being classified as water scarce', Pakistan faces an existential threat- one that could potentially hobble its already modest economic growth.
Water scarcity and water quality degradation are exacerbated by climate change in all countries, including Pakistan. The use of water in agriculture is one of the most predominant resources, so reducing consumption and improving resource management is of utmost importance. In the past few decades, excessive irrigation has led to severe water scarcity and reduced water quality.
Jan 25, 2021 Pakistan, Water. In 2019, the World Bank published its report on water scarcity and water security in Pakistan. These two terms refer to the water available to each person based on the total supply, and the overall access and safety of the available water respectively. The report highlights two main reasons for the increasing ...
In 2021, the government of Pakistan's Sindh province received 5.38 million acre-feet (MAF) of irrigated water, which is a 35 per cent decline in its share in provincial allocation. Red chilli, cotton and rice crops have suffered the most due to the shortage. The decline in provincial allocation was a political move despite the Pakistan Meteorologist Department claiming that this decrease is ...
Researchers predict that Pakistan is on its way to becoming the most water-stressed country in the region by the year 2040. It is not the first time that development and research...
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) warn of absolute water scarcity and a drought by 2025 if such problems prevail. Recently the sources of Pakistan's water are becoming unpredictable.
This paper critically evaluates the water resources and socio-economic and environmental factors contributing to increased farm-level water scarcity in the Punjab region. The study involved conducting structured interviews with 370 farmers to gather data necessary for conducting a detailed sociotechnical factor analysis.
Pakistan's big — arguably, biggest — problem is water scarcity. The country faces acute water scarcity by 2025, and will be the most water-stressed country in South Asia within two decades ...
By 2025 Pakistan will reach a level of absolute water scarcity. This wouldn't only hit the south's deserts but also the North as well that is known for snow-filled mountains and more than 5000 glaciers, Neil Buhne, UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Pakistan, describes in the report.
lis, Maryland, USA, in a session on dams. The title of that presentation was "Water Scarcity and the Role of Dams in Development." For this paper, we changed the title, substituting the broader term "storage" for "dams," to reflect the importance of increasing storage, regardless of type, to address water scarcity.