educational research case study methodology

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved March 7, 2023, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, what is your plagiarism score.

Review of Educational Research (RER) publishes critical, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education. Such reviews should include conceptualizations, interpretations, and syntheses of literature and scholarly work in a field. RER encourages the submission of research relevant to education from any discipline, such as reviews of research in psychology, sociology, history, philosophy, political science, economics, computer science, statistics, anthropology, and biology, provided that the review bears on educational issues.

The American Educational Research Association (AERA) is concerned with improving the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry related to education and by promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results. AERA is the most prominent international professional organization with the primary goal of advancing educational research and its practical application. Its 20,000 members are educators; administrators; directors of research, testing or evaluation in federal, state and local agencies; counselors; evaluators; graduate students; and behavioral scientists. The broad range of disciplines represented by the membership includes education, psychology, statistics, sociology, history, economics, philosophy, anthropology, and political science.

Resources for research

Case studies in educational research

31 Mar 2011

Dr Lorna Hamilton

To cite this reference: Hamilton, L. (2011) Case studies in educational research, British Educational Research Association on-line resource. Available on-line at [INSERT WEB PAGE ADDRESS HERE] Last accessed [insert date here]

Case study is often seen as a means of gathering together data and giving coherence and limit to what is being sought. But how can we define case study effectively and ensure that it is thoughtfully and rigorously constructed? This resource shares some key definitions of case study and identifies important choices and decisions around the creation of studies. It is for those with little or no experience of case study in education research and provides an introduction to some of the key aspects of this approach: from the all important question of what exactly is case study, to the key decisions around case study work and possible approaches to dealing with the data collected. At the end of the resource, key references and resources are identified which provide the reader with further guidance.

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Case study is a research method that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single unit, such as an individual, family, group, organization, community, or event. Case studies are usually conducted by sociologists, psychologists, historians, anthropologists, or researchers from other social science disciplines.

Case studies are used to provide a rich and detailed account of a particular social phenomenon. They are often used to generate new hypotheses or to test existing theories. In some cases, case studies are also used to evaluate programs or interventions.

Types of Case Study

There are three types of case study research:

Exploratory Case Studies

Descriptive case studies, explanatory case studies.

Exploratory case studies are conducted when little is known about a phenomenon. They are used to generate hypotheses and gather preliminary data.

Descriptive case studies describe a phenomenon in detail. They are used to develop an understanding of a complex issue.

Explanatory case studies explain why or how something happens. They are used to test theories and identify cause-and-effect relationships.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

There are a variety of case study data collection methods, including:

Observations

Document analysis

Interviews are perhaps the most common type of data collection in case studies. They allow researchers to collect detailed information about individuals’ experiences and perspectives.

Observations can also be useful in case studies, particularly if the researcher is interested in studying how people interact with their environment.

Document Analysis

Document analysis is another common data collection method in case studies; it involves examining documents such as policy records, media reports, and demographic data.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting case study research is a complex process that requires both scientific and methodological rigor. Follow the steps below:

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of using case study research.

Also see Focus Groups in Qualitative Research

Disadvantages of Case Study Research

There are also a number of drawbacks to using this approach.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

I am Muhammad Hassan, a Researcher, Academic Writer, Web Developer, and Android App Developer. I have worked in various industries and have gained a wealth of knowledge and experience. In my spare time, I enjoy writing blog posts and articles on a variety of Academic topics. I also like to stay up-to-date with the latest trends in the IT industry to share my knowledge with others through my writing.

Mixed Methods Research – Types & Analysis

Qualitative Research – Methods and Analysis

Quantitative Research – Methods and Analysis

Quasi-Experimental Research Design – Types...

Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods

Correlational Research Design – Methods, Types

What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

Alumni responses varied but tended to follow a pattern. Almost no one referred to a specific business concept they learned. Many mentioned close friendships or the classmate who became a business or life partner. Most often, though, alumni highlighted a personal quality or skill like “increased self-confidence” or “the ability to advocate for a point of view” or “knowing how to work closely with others to solve problems.” And when I asked how they developed these capabilities, they inevitably mentioned the magic of the case method.

Harvard Business School pioneered the use of case studies to teach management in 1921. As we commemorate 100 years of case teaching, much has been written about the effectiveness of this method. I agree with many of these observations. Cases expose students to real business dilemmas and decisions. Cases teach students to size up business problems quickly while considering the broader organizational, industry, and societal context. Students recall concepts better when they are set in a case, much as people remember words better when used in context. Cases teach students how to apply theory in practice and how to induce theory from practice. The case method cultivates the capacity for critical analysis, judgment, decision-making, and action.

There is a word that aptly captures the broader set of capabilities our alumni reported they learned from the case method. That word is meta-skills, and these meta-skills are a benefit of case study instruction that those who’ve never been exposed to the method may undervalue.

Educators define meta-skills as a group of long-lasting abilities that allow someone to learn new things more quickly. When parents encourage a child to learn to play a musical instrument, for instance, beyond the hope of instilling musical skills (which some children will master and others may not), they may also appreciate the benefit the child derives from deliberate, consistent practice. This meta-skill is valuable for learning many other things beyond music.

In the same vein, let me suggest seven vital meta-skills students gain from the case method:

1. Preparation

There is no place for students to hide in the moments before the famed “cold call”— when the teacher can ask any student at random to open the case discussion. Decades after they graduate, students will vividly remember cold calls when they, or someone else, froze with fear, or when they rose to nail the case even in the face of a fierce grilling by the professor.

The case method creates high-powered incentives for students to prepare. Students typically spend several hours reading, highlighting, and debating cases before class, sometimes alone and sometimes in groups. The number of cases to be prepared can be overwhelming by design.

Learning to be prepared — to read materials in advance, prioritize, identify the key issues, and have an initial point of view — is a meta-skill that helps people succeed in a broad range of professions and work situations. We have all seen how the prepared person, who knows what they are talking about, can gain the trust and confidence of others in a business meeting. The habits of preparing for a case discussion can transform a student into that person.

2. Discernment

Many cases are long. A typical case may include history, industry background, a cast of characters, dialogue, financial statements, source documents, or other exhibits. Some material may be digressive or inessential. Cases often have holes — critical pieces of information that are missing.

The case method forces students to identify and focus on what’s essential, ignore the noise, skim when possible, and concentrate on what matters, meta-skills required for every busy executive confronted with the paradox of simultaneous information overload and information paucity. As one alumnus pithily put it, “The case method helped me learn how to separate the wheat from the chaff.”

3. Bias Recognition

Students often have an initial reaction to a case stemming from their background or earlier work and life experiences. For instance, people who have worked in finance may be biased to view cases through a financial lens. However, effective general managers must understand and empathize with various stakeholders, and if someone has a natural tendency to favor one viewpoint over another, discussing dozens of cases will help reveal that bias. Armed with this self-understanding, students can correct that bias or learn to listen more carefully to classmates whose different viewpoints may help them see beyond their own biases.

Recognizing and correcting personal bias can be an invaluable meta-skill in business settings when leaders inevitably have to work with people from different functions, backgrounds, and perspectives.

4. Judgment

Cases put students into the role of the case protagonist and force them to make and defend a decision. The format leaves room for nuanced discussion, but not for waffling: Teachers push students to choose an option, knowing full well that there is rarely one correct answer.

Indeed, most cases are meant to stimulate a discussion rather than highlight effective or ineffective management practice. Across the cases they study, students get feedback from their classmates and their teachers about when their decisions are more or less compelling. It enables them to develop the judgment of making decisions under uncertainty, communicating that decision to others, and gaining their buy-in — all essential leadership skills. Leaders earn respect for their judgment. It is something students in the case method get lots of practice honing.

5. Collaboration

It is better to make business decisions after extended give-and-take, debate, and deliberation. As in any team sport, people get better at working collaboratively with practice. Discussing cases in small study groups, and then in the classroom, helps students practice the meta-skill of collaborating with others. Our alumni often say they came away from the case method with better skills to participate in meetings and lead them.

Orchestrating a good collaborative discussion in which everyone contributes, every viewpoint is carefully considered, yet a thoughtful decision is made in the end is the arc of any good case discussion. Although teachers play the primary role in this collaborative process during their time at the school, it is an art that students of the case method internalize and get better at when they get to lead discussions.

6. Curiosity

Cases expose students to lots of different situations and roles. Across cases, they get to assume the role of entrepreneur, investor, functional leader, or CEO, in a range of different industries and sectors. Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers.

Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders. This curiosity serves them well throughout their lives. It makes them more agile, more adaptive, and more open to doing a wider range of things in their careers.

7. Self-Confidence

Students must inhabit roles during a case study that far outstrip their prior experience or capability, often as leaders of teams or entire organizations in unfamiliar settings. “What would you do if you were the case protagonist?” is the most common question in a case discussion. Even though they are imaginary and temporary, these “stretch” assignments increase students’ self-confidence that they can rise to the challenge.

In our program, students can study 500 cases over two years, and the range of roles they are asked to assume increases the range of situations they believe they can tackle. Speaking up in front of 90 classmates feels risky at first, but students become more comfortable taking that risk over time. Knowing that they can hold their own in a highly curated group of competitive peers enhances student confidence. Often, alumni describe how discussing cases made them feel prepared for much bigger roles or challenges than they’d imagined they could handle before their MBA studies. Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people.

There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching. This quickly became apparent when case teaching was introduced in 1921 — and it’s even truer today.

For educators and students, recognizing the value of these meta-skills can offer perspective on the broader goals of their work together. Returning to the example of piano lessons, it may be natural for a music teacher or their students to judge success by a simple measure: Does the student learn to play the instrument well? But when everyone involved recognizes the broader meta-skills that instrumental instruction can instill — and that even those who bumble their way through Bach may still derive lifelong benefits from their instruction — it may lead to a deeper appreciation of this work.

For recruiters and employers, recognizing the long-lasting set of benefits that accrue from studying via the case method can be a valuable perspective in assessing candidates and plotting their potential career trajectories.

And while we must certainly use the case method’s centennial to imagine yet more powerful ways of educating students in the future, let us be sure to assess these innovations for the meta-skills they might instill, as much as the subject matter mastery they might enable.

Nitin Nohria is the former dean of Harvard Business School.

Partner Center

Get $30 referral bonus and Earn 10% COMMISSION on all your friend's order for life! Start Earning

New User? Start here.

Popular Search

Securing Higher Grades Costing Your Pocket? Book Your Assignment at The Lowest Price Now!

Error goes here

Files Missing!

Please upload all relevant files for quick & complete assistance.

Save Time & Excel Academics

Share your requirements & connect with top tutor !

We will use e-mail only for:

Overall Rating

Step by Step Guidelines For Conducting A Case Study

A case study tells a story about something special, interesting or unique. It can be about an individual, an organisation or an event. You can also use it to highlight a project's success or to bring your reader's attention to a particular challenge or difficulty in that project. The case study methodology is about how to conduct research while working on a specific case. This section describes the process of selecting a case, gathering credible data from a wide variety of sources, analysing and interpreting them. There are four primary stages included in the case study research methodology . The authenticity of your case study depends on how perfectly you master all the stages as discussed below.

What are the four main stages in case study research methodology?

Case study methodology encourages an intensive investigation of a particular unit (an organization, an event or even an individual) under considerations. Had it not been for methodologies, it would have been difficult to demonstrate ideas in a case study due to conflicting epistemological presuppositions and other complexities involved in this task. So, let’s check out the basic stages in the methodology of a case study.

Stage 1: Defining the case

Defining the research problem t clearly is the first step of your case-study methodology. You can also consider this as the ‘planning’ phase since it lets you identify research questions or other rationales for writing the case study. You have to formulate the research question, add existing literature and appreciate the theoretical issues related to your topic while defining the case.

What else to remember while defining the case?

For instance, consider the case study topic ‘Introduction of electronic health records in urban hospitals.’ You can define the case based on the use of technology where your focus would be on how technology is implemented in hospitals. You can also define the case based on social and organisational dimensions of technology in hospitals. In that case, you have to talk about the impact of technology on healthcare professionals.

Stage 2: Pick the right type of case study

You need to reflect on the type of information sources you have used to pick the right type of case study. There are three main types of case study methodology you can choose from such as:

Intrinsic case study

In an intrinsic case study, the case itself is of primary interest to the readers. You can pick this genre of case study if your topic is unique as compared to the other similar work. For example, you can analyse the marginalisation of minority people with asthma or study an elderly couple living with dementia.

Instrumental case study

This type of case study lets you investigate an idea, an issue or a phenomenon. Let’s assume you are writing about doctor’s responses to certain health policy initiatives. So, you can use an instrumental case study for interviewing clinicians to generate theory and hypothesis related to this topic.

Collective or multiple case studies

Collective case studies help you compare across several cases so that you can come to a valid conclusion at the end of your case study. Let's say you decide to write a case study about a particular theory. Thus, you need to compare two or three case studies if the theory is straightforward. However, you must use five or more cases for comparison if the theory is subtle.

Picking the right type of case study will help you proceed with the next stages of methodology hassle-free. Whether you need to interview someone or conduct a SWOT analysis, all of that depends on the type of your case study.

Stage 3: Collect relevant and authentic data

To develop a thorough understanding of your case, you must gather valuable data from multiple sources. You can use qualitative techniques such as interviews, observations or focus groups or quantitative techniques like questionnaires or audits. The more sources you use, the more valid your case study will be. Speaking of collecting data, the two most common resources are:

Library and internet research

Note down everything that has been written related to your topic. Read relevant articles, magazines, journals, etc. that can give you more information about your case.

You may find that there are existing problems that need solving while going through online sources. For example, let’s say you are writing a case study on a national park and its endangered ecosystem due to an increased number of visitors. In that case, your research question would be ‘how to solve the park’s ecosystem without affecting tourists?’

Now, what if you find that the place doesn't have a lot of tourists? In that case, your research question would be ‘how to encourage more tourists to come without affecting the park?‘

Careful interviews

Conduct interviews to gather more practical knowledge about the case you are working on. Get hold of knowledgeable people whose opinion can contribute to the internal validity of your case study. Make sure you get the person to tell you whatever it is that he/she knows and thinks.

Considering the national park example, here the questions to ask in an interview:

The research phase is very important as it sets the direction for the rest of the sections in a case study. You can also use secondary information sources such as organisational archives, previously unpublished data, internal reports, memoranda, etc.

Stage four- Analyse the information

If you look at case study methodology examples, you will understand that the writers use only the most significant details throughout the study. You may have gathered a wide plethora of information for the case study. But, you have to complete the project within a specified word count. Thus, evaluate all the sources and use only the most significant information in your paper.

Here’s how to analyse your data:

Take out the excess

You can’t include all kinds of information in your case study. Sort out the information, take out the excess and arrange the information in such a way that your case study is understandable to your readers.

Break down the case problem

Break down the case problem into different parts. Each part is a piece of the puzzle that your reader should understand while reading your case. Ensure that you have enough research findings for each part of your case study question.

Figure out what is really important

Your readers should understand the situation you are trying to portray in the case study. Thus, include the information that really enhances the validity of your work and research.

Let’s assume the following:

The heritage site that you are talking about doesn’t have many visitors. But, people would like to visit if the heritage site has facilities.

Now ask yourself ‘how much information do I need to include so that my readers can discuss the questions mentioned above?’ You can take a look at research methodology samples if you are still confused about how to analyse the data collected.

Final Thoughts,

The quality of your case study depends on the precision of your case study research methods . Get all the stages of your methodology right, and you will be able to craft a perfect case study in no time. The methodology section is also very time-consuming. It is better that you check out online qualitative research methodology examples to attend to each stage carefully. Consult with your professors if you are unable to find research material relevant to your case study question.

Need Help With Your Case Study?

You are at the right place.

Writing a case study is not as easy as it may look like. You have to invest enough time and effort in the research, analysis and writing phase to complete this paper. Don’t panic if you have a time crunch or some personal commitments to take care of. We have the best case study writers who have the expertise to deliver a perfect case study right on time. Other perks of availing our services are:

What are you waiting for? Place your order with us and fetch higher grades in your paper easily. Our support team works round the clock. So, feel free to connect with us at your convenience.

Newsletter Signup

Still in two minds the proof is in numbers.

Genuine Reviews With a Rating of 4.9/5 .

Assignment: 3 Pages, Deadline: 6 days

Very easy to uses and very helpful at a fantastic price. Will recommend the services

Assignment: 4 Pages, Deadline: 3 days

Excellent work was given. I would recommend this expert to anyone. The paper was perfect .

Assignment: 7 Pages, Deadline: 8 days

This article is very well written. Thank you!! Much appreciated.you have used excellent references and a good format.

Assignment: 6 Pages, Deadline: 20 days

Nice marks and score I got, great team of professionals who are really passionate about what they do

Dissertation: 40 Pages, Deadline: 9 days

I like to thank everyone that has taken the time to get this assignment done for me, the dissertation is carefully written, and I have submitted the w ...

Assignment: 8 Pages, Deadline: 18 days

the expert worked according to what i requested and delivered it on time. very satisfied with it.

Essay: 2 Pages, Deadline: 3 days

Hello, This assignment was done perfectly. I had no issues with rework. Great job.

Home Work: 3 Pages, Deadline: 3 days

Very good piece of writing done before deadline , intersted and well detailed. I recommend this service even the prices offered, much cheaper than wha ...

Assignment: 8 Pages, Deadline: 1 day

The way you approached this project added so much to it. It’s great to see how your unique perspective contributed to the outcome.

Assignment: 10 Pages, Deadline: 9 hours

great work and very helpful. my assignment is and is what I need. thank you very much for the hardworking

Civil Engineering

Essay: 8 Pages, Deadline: 10 days

didnt do really well just very basic got me decent marks for a high price point.

Assignment: 12 Pages, Deadline: 13 hours

I received it on time. Assignment was good covering all aspects. Happy to get good grades.

Assignment: 6 Pages, Deadline: 3 days

you do a good work and got really good marks with your assignment. i also refer to my friends to take help from you in making assignments.

Essay: 3 Pages, Deadline: 1 day

Nice write up and good communication , Hope the price can be fait to reflect industry standard

Programming: 6 Pages, Deadline: 9 days

Good workwith well detailed explanations. I hope to get more experienced write ups.

Home Work: 1.6 Pages, Deadline: 4 days

This discussion came out great. I got 29/30. I am so impressed. Even my professor was super impressed, most especially with the graphics. Great job is ...

Assignment: 5.6 Pages, Deadline: 13 days

hi good job the best team thanks you for every assignment .he expert did a nice work, there was nothing correct in the work , and that was very swift ...

Assignment: 2 Pages, Deadline: 3 days

Well detailed and interesting piece of work, ready before deadline. It didn't meet all my expectations but the expert changed some of the solution to ...

Home Work: 3 Pages, Deadline: 4 days

The work is fantastic, done within the time line provided with no issue related to copy and paste.

Case Study: 8 Pages, Deadline: 4 days

The work was great with no issues and no case of copy and paste, I like how you guys do the work. It is fantastic.

5% Cashback

On APP - grab it while it lasts!

Download app now (or) Scan the QR code

*Offer eligible for first 3 orders ordered through app!

Subscribe to our Newsletter

Stay in touch with latest news and exclusive offers every week. "No spam !"

GET BEST PRICE FOR YOUR WORK.

5000+ experts.

ONLINE TO HELP YOU 24X7

GUARANTEED GRADE

OR GET MONEY BACK!

RATED 4.9/5

OUT OF 38983 REVIEWS

Business Intelligence

Received my assignment before my deadline request, paper was well written. Highly recommend.

Have any Query?

Contact with us.

Case Study Research: Methods and Designs

Case study research is a type of qualitative research design. It’s often used in the social sciences because it involves…

Case study research is a type of qualitative research design. It’s often used in the social sciences because it involves observing subjects, or cases, in their natural setting, with minimal interference from the researcher.

In the case study method , researchers pose a specific question about an individual or group to test their theories or hypothesis. This can be done by gathering data from interviews with key informants.

Here’s what you need to know about case study research design .

What Is The Case Study Method?

Main approaches to data collection, case study research methods, how case studies are used, case study model.

Case study research is a great way to understand the nuances of a matter that can get lost in quantitative research methods. A case study is distinct from other qualitative studies in the following ways:

Here are the primary features of case study research:

They commonly use the case study method in business, management, psychology, sociology, political science and other related fields.

A fundamental requirement of qualitative research is recording observations that provide an understanding of reality. When it comes to the case study method, there are two major approaches that can be used to collect data: document review and fieldwork.

A case study in research methodology also includes literature review, the process by which the researcher collects all data available through historical documents. These might include books, newspapers, journals, videos, photographs and other written material. The researcher may also record information using video cameras to capture events as they occur. The researcher can also go through materials produced by people involved in the case study to gain an insight into their lives and experiences.

Field research involves participating in interviews and observations directly. Observation can be done during telephone interviews, events or public meetings, visits to homes or workplaces, or by shadowing someone for a period of time. The researcher can conduct one-on-one interviews with individuals or group interviews where several people are interviewed at once.

Let’s look now at case study methodology.

The case study method can be divided into three stages: formulation of objectives; collection of data; and analysis and interpretation. The researcher first makes a judgment about what should be studied based on their knowledge. Next, they gather data through observations and interviews. Here are some of the common case study research methods:

One of the most basic methods is the survey. Respondents are asked to complete a questionnaire with open-ended and predetermined questions. It usually takes place through face-to-face interviews, mailed questionnaires or telephone interviews. It can even be done by an online survey.

2. Semi-structured Interview

For case study research a more complex method is the semi-structured interview. This involves the researcher learning about the topic by listening to what others have to say. This usually occurs through one-on-one interviews with the sample. Semi-structured interviews allow for greater flexibility and can obtain information that structured questionnaires can’t.

3. Focus Group Interview

Another method is the focus group interview, where the researcher asks a few people to take part in an open-ended discussion on certain themes or topics. The typical group size is 5–15 people. This method allows researchers to delve deeper into people’s opinions, views and experiences.

4. Participant Observation

Participant observation is another method that involves the researcher gaining insight into an experience by joining in and taking part in normal events. The people involved don’t always know they’re being studied, but the researcher observes and records what happens through field notes.

Case study research design can use one or several of these methods depending on the context.

Case studies are widely used in the social sciences. To understand the impact of socio-economic forces, interpersonal dynamics and other human conditions, sometimes there’s no other way than to study one case at a time and look for patterns and data afterward.

It’s for the same reasons that case studies are used in business. Here are a few uses:

And that’s not all. Case studies are incredibly versatile, which is why they’re used so widely.

Human beings are complex and they interact with each other in their everyday life in various ways. The researcher observes a case and tries to find out how the patterns of behavior are created, including their causal relations. Case studies help understand one or more specific events that have been observed. Here are some common methods:

1. Illustrative case study

This is where the researcher observes a group of people doing something. Studying an event or phenomenon this way can show cause-and-effect relationships between various variables.

2. Cumulative case study

A cumulative case study is one that involves observing the same set of phenomena over a period. Cumulative case studies can be very helpful in understanding processes, which are things that happen over time. For example, if there are behavioral changes in people who move from one place to another, the researcher might want to know why these changes occurred.

3. Exploratory case study

An exploratory case study collects information that will answer a question. It can help researchers better understand social, economic, political or other social phenomena.

There are several other ways to categorize case studies. They may be chronological case studies, where a researcher observes events over time. In the comparative case study, the researcher compares one or more groups of people, places, or things to draw conclusions about them. In an intervention case study, the researcher intervenes to change the behavior of the subjects. The study method depends on the needs of the research team.

Deciding how to analyze the information at our disposal is an important part of effective management. An understanding of the case study model can help. With Harappa’s Thinking Critically course, managers and young professionals receive input and training on how to level up their analytic skills. Knowledge of frameworks, reading real-life examples and lived wisdom of faculty come together to create a dynamic and exciting course that helps teams leap to the next level.

Explore Harappa Diaries to learn more about topics such as Objectives Of Research , What are Qualitative Research Methods , How To Make A Problem Statement and How To Improve your Cognitive Skills to upgrade your knowledge and skills.

Educational Research Methods

A site to support teaching and learning...

Case study in a common methodology used in educational research, and there a are many published studies in education which are considered by their authors to be case studies .

Characteristics of case study :

Case study is by its nature idiographic work, and usually tends to be interpretive .

"Studies such as these build upon the analysis of single settings or occurrences. They treat each case as empirically distinct and, in contrast to survey analysis, do not automatically presume that different instances can be thrown together to form a homogenous aggregate." (Hamilton, 1980, p.79.)

Hamilton, David (1980) Some contrasting assumptions about case study research and survey analysis, in Simons, Helen (ed.) Towards a Science of the Singular: Essays about Case Study in Educational Research and Evaluation , Norwich: Centre for Applied Research in Education, UEA, pp.78-92.

“Case study is a methodology used to explore a particular instance in detail …The instance has to be identifiable as having clear boundaries and could be a lesson, the teaching of a scheme of work in a school department, a university teaching department, a group visit to a museum by one class of students, etc. … Although case study looks at an identifiable instance, it is normally naturalistic, exploring the case in its usual context, rather than attempting to set up a clinical setting - which would often not be viable even if considered useful, as often the case is embedded in its natural context in ways that influence its characteristics (so moving a teacher and a class from their normal setting, to a special research classroom in a university, for example, is likely to change behaviours that would be exhibited in the ‘natural’ setting).”

Taber, K. S. (2014). Methodological issues in science education research: a perspective from the philosophy of science. In M. R. Matthews (Ed.), International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching (Vol. 3, pp. 1839-1893). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.

Case study focuses on one instance among many - the scale of what counts as a case therefor varies considerably.

The instance may be selected for its own special inherent value ( intrinsic case study ), or may be studied as a representative of a wider class of cases ( instrumental case study ).

Case study is a naturalistic form of research

Case study explores a bounded system

Case study involves collecting in-depth data , to support thick description . This is required to support any kind of generalisation from the specifics of a case study.

“...the authors opt for a 'qualitative case-study analysis'. However, quite in line with the large sample size, the analysis has been quite shallow: the fragments of student discourse are presented without any contextual interpretation, which makes it impossible as a reader to assess the validity of the given interpretations.”

Critical comments for a peer review report of an article submitted for publication

Multiple case study

Sometimes researchers carry out and compare across multiple cases. In multiple case study research each case has to be studied in its own stead, before an attempt to look across cases.

This is a personal site of Keith S. Taber to support teaching of educational research methods.

( Dr Keith Taber is Professor of Science Education at the University of Cambridge.)

Index of topics

Action Research Methods pp 69–79 Cite as

A Case for Case Study Research in Education

Kit Grauer

1343 Accesses

10 Citations

This chapter makes the case that case study research is making a comeback in educational research because it allows researchers a broad range of methodological tools to suit the needs of answering questions of “how” and “why” within a particular real-world context. As Stake (1995) suggests, case study is often a preferred method of research because case studies may be epistemologically in harmony with the reader’s experience and thus to that person a natural basis for generalization.

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution .

Buying options

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Bassey, M. (1999). Case study research in educational settings . Buckingham, England: Open University Press.

Google Scholar

Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative case study methodology: Study design and implementation for novice researchers. The Qualitative Report , 13(4), 544–559.

Becker, H. S. (2000). Generalizing from case studies. In E. W. Eisner & A. Peshkin (Eds.), Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate (pp. 233–242). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Corcoran, P. B., Walker, K. E., & Wals, A. E. (2004). Case studies, make-your-case studies, and case stories: A critique of case-study methodology in sustainability in higher education. Environmental Education Research , 10(1), 7–21.

CrossRef Google Scholar

Creswell, J. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches . London, England: Sage.

Grauer, K. (1998). Beliefs of preservice teachers in art education. Studies in Art Education, 39(4) , 350–370.

Grauer, K., Irwin R. L., de Cosson, A., & Wilson, S. (2001). Images for understanding: Snapshots of learning through the arts. International Journal of Education & the Arts , 2(9). Retrieved from http://www.ijea.org/v2n9.

Guba, E. (1981). Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries. Educational Resources Information Center Annual Review Paper, 29 , 75–91.

Hancock, D. R., & Algozzine, B. (2006). Doing case study research: A practical guide for beginning researchers . New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Henderson, J. (2001). Reflective teaching: Professional artistry through inquiry (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Klein, S. (Ed.). (2003). Teaching art in context: Case studies for art education. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.

Lather, P. (1992). Critical frames in educational research: Feminist and poststructural perspectives. Theory into Practice , 31(2), 87–99.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. A. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Merriam, S. B. (1998). Case study research and case study applications in education . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded source book (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Patton, M. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Richards, L., & Richards, T. (1994). From filing cabinet to computer. In A. Bryman & R. G. Burgess (Eds.), Analysing qualitative data (pp. 146–172). London, England: Routledge.

Richards, T. J., & Richards, L. (1998). Using computers in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualita¬tive materials (pp. 445–462). London, England: Sage.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

VanWynsberghe, R., & Khan, S. (2007). Redefining case study. International Journal of Qualitative Methods , 6(2), 80–94. Retrieved from http://ejournals.library.ualberta.ca/index.php/IJQM/article/view/542.

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Download references

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations, copyright information.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter.

Grauer, K. (2012). A Case for Case Study Research in Education. In: Klein, S.R. (eds) Action Research Methods. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137046635_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137046635_4

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, New York

Print ISBN : 978-1-349-29560-9

Online ISBN : 978-1-137-04663-5

eBook Packages : Palgrave Education Collection Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

To register on our site and for the best user experience, please enable Javascript in your browser using these instructions .

Products and services

Our innovative products and services for learners, authors and customers are based on world-class research and are relevant, exciting and inspiring.

We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world.

No matter who you are, what you do, or where you come from, you’ll feel proud to work here.

Unlocking potential with the best learning and research solutions

Qualitative methods

Case Study Research Principles and Practices

2nd Edition

Part of Strategies for Social Inquiry

This title is available on our Higher Education website.

Find out more about available formats and browse any associated online resources.

Other available formats: Hardback , eBook

Request examination copy.

Instructors may request a copy of this title for examination

Case Study Research: Principles and Practices provides a general understanding of the case study method as well as specific tools for its successful implementation. These tools are applicable in a variety of fields including anthropology, business and management, communications, economics, education, medicine, political science, psychology, social work, and sociology. Topics include: a survey of case study approaches; a methodologically tractable definition of 'case study'; strategies for case selection, including random sampling and other algorithmic approaches; quantitative and qualitative modes of case study analysis; and problems of internal and external validity. The second edition of this core textbook is designed to be accessible to readers who are new to the subject and is thoroughly revised and updated, incorporating recent research, numerous up-to-date studies and comprehensive lecture slides.

Customer reviews

Not yet reviewed.

Be the first to review

Log in to review

Review was not posted due to profanity

, create a review

(If you're not , sign out )

How do you rate this item?

Product details.

Preface Part I. Case Studies: 1. Surveys 2. Definitions Part II. Selecting Cases: 3. Overview of case selection 4. Descriptive case studies 5. Causal case studies 6. Algorithms and samples Part III. Analyzing Cases: 7. A typology of research designs 8. Quantitative and qualitative modes of analysis Part IV. Validity: 9. Internal validity 10. External validity Part V. Conclusions: 11. Tradeoffs Part VI. References Index.

Look Inside

This title is available for institutional purchase via Cambridge Core

Related books.

Process Tracing

From Metaphor to Analytic Tool

Applied Social Science Methodology

An Introductory Guide

The Production of Knowledge

Enhancing Progress in Social Science

related journals

Political Science Research and Methods

Political Science Research and Methods (PSRM) is a general political science journal dedicated to publishing original…

also by this author

Population and Politics

The Impact of Scale

Case Study Research

Principles and Practices

Social Science Methodology

A Unified Framework

Party Ideologies in America, 1828–1996

A Centripetal Theory of Democratic Governance

A Criterial Framework

Browse by related subject

Quantitative methods

Sorry, this resource is locked

Please register or sign in to request access. If you are having problems accessing these resources please email [email protected]

You are now leaving the Cambridge University Press website. Your eBook purchase and download will be completed by our partner www.ebooks.com. Please see the permission section of the www.ebooks.com catalogue page for details of the print & copy limits on our eBooks.

Remove this title from your notification list?

Turn stock notifications on?

You must be signed in to your Cambridge account to turn product stock notifications on or off.

Save 20% off on your next online purchase with Cambridge Alerts

Receive email alerts on new books, offers and news...

Find content that relates to you

Join us online.

What we do What we do

About us About us

Are you sure you want to delete your account?

This cannot be undone.

Thank you for your feedback which will help us improve our service.

If you requested a response, we will make sure to get back to you shortly.

Case Study Examples

This post was originally posted as part of the February 2021Methodspace focus on Choosing Methodology and Methods .

Open-Access Articles Using Case Study Methodology

As you can see from this collection, case study methods are used in both qualitative and quantitative research.

Ang, C.-S., Lee, K.-F., & Dipolog-Ubanan, G. F. (2019). Determinants of First-Year Student Identity and Satisfaction in Higher Education: A Quantitative Case Study. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019846689

Abstract. First-year undergraduates’ expectations and experience of university and student engagement variables were investigated to determine how these perceptions influence their student identity and overall course satisfaction. Data collected from 554 first-year undergraduates at a large private university were analyzed. Participants were given the adapted version of the Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education Survey to self-report their learning experience and engagement in the university community. The results showed that, in general, the students’ reasons of pursuing tertiary education were to open the door to career opportunities and skill development. Moreover, students’ views on their learning and university engagement were at the moderate level. In relation to student identity and overall student satisfaction, it is encouraging to state that their perceptions of studentship and course satisfaction were rather positive. After controlling for demographics, student engagement appeared to explain more variance in student identity, whereas students’ expectations and experience explained greater variance in students’ overall course satisfaction. Implications for practice, limitations, and recommendation of this study are addressed.

Baker, A. J. (2017). Algorithms to Assess Music Cities: Case Study—Melbourne as a Music Capital. SAGE Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017691801

Abstract. The global Mastering of a Music City report in 2015 notes that the concept of music cities has penetrated the global political vernacular because it delivers “significant economic, employment, cultural and social benefits.” This article highlights that no empirical study has combined all these values and offers a relevant and comprehensive definition of a music city. Drawing on industry research,1 the article assesses how mathematical flowcharts, such as Algorithm A (Economics), Algorithm B (Four T’s creative index), and Algorithm C (Heritage), have contributed to the definition of a music city. Taking Melbourne as a case study, it illustrates how Algorithms A and B are used as disputed evidence about whether the city is touted as Australia’s music capital. The article connects the three algorithms to an academic framework from musicology, urban studies, cultural economics, and sociology, and proposes a benchmark Algorithm D (Music Cities definition), which offers a more holistic assessment of music activity in any urban context. The article concludes by arguing that Algorithm D offers a much-needed definition of what comprises a music city because it builds on the popular political economy focus and includes the social importance of space and cultural practices.

Brown, K., & Mondon, A. (2020). Populism, the media, and the mainstreaming of the far right: The Guardian’s coverage of populism as a case study. Politics. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263395720955036

Abstract. Populism seems to define our current political age. The term is splashed across the headlines, brandished in political speeches and commentaries, and applied extensively in numerous academic publications and conferences. This pervasive usage, or populist hype, has serious implications for our understanding of the meaning of populism itself and for our interpretation of the phenomena to which it is applied. In particular, we argue that its common conflation with far-right politics, as well as its breadth of application to other phenomena, has contributed to the mainstreaming of the far right in three main ways: (1) agenda-setting power and deflection, (2) euphemisation and trivialisation, and (3) amplification. Through a mixed-methods approach to discourse analysis, this article uses The Guardian newspaper as a case study to explore the development of the populist hype and the detrimental effects of the logics that it has pushed in public discourse.

Droy, L. T., Goodwin, J., & O’Connor, H. (2020). Methodological Uncertainty and Multi-Strategy Analysis: Case Study of the Long-Term Effects of Government Sponsored Youth Training on Occupational Mobility. Bulletin of Sociological Methodology/Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique, 147–148(1–2), 200–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0759106320939893

Abstract. Sociological practitioners often face considerable methodological uncertainty when undertaking a quantitative analysis. This methodological uncertainty encompasses both data construction (e.g. defining variables) and analysis (e.g. selecting and specifying a modelling procedure). Methodological uncertainty can lead to results that are fragile and arbitrary. Yet, many practitioners may be unaware of the potential scale of methodological uncertainty in quantitative analysis, and the recent emergence of techniques for addressing it. Recent proposals for ‘multi-strategy’ approaches seek to identify and manage methodological uncertainty in quantitative analysis. We present a case-study of a multi-strategy analysis, applied to the problem of estimating the long-term impact of 1980s UK government-sponsored youth training. We use this case study to further highlight the problem of cumulative methodological fragilities in applied quantitative sociology and to discuss and help develop multi-strategy analysis as a tool to address them.

Ebneyamini, S., & Sadeghi Moghadam, M. R. (2018). Toward Developing a Framework for Conducting Case Study Research . International Journal of Qualitative Methods . https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918817954

Abstract. This article reviews the use of case study research for both practical and theoretical issues especially in management field with the emphasis on management of technology and innovation. Many researchers commented on the methodological issues of the case study research from their point of view thus, presenting a comprehensive framework was missing. We try representing a general framework with methodological and analytical perspective to design, develop, and conduct case study research. To test the coverage of our framework, we have analyzed articles in three major journals related to the management of technology and innovation to approve our framework. This study represents a general structure to guide, design, and fulfill a case study research with levels and steps necessary for researchers to use in their research.

Lynch, R., Young, J. C., Boakye-Achampong, S., Jowaisas, C., Sam, J., & Norlander, B. (2020). Benefits of crowdsourcing for libraries: A case study from Africa . IFLA Journal. https://doi.org/10.1177/0340035220944940

Abstract. Many libraries in the Global South do not collect comprehensive data about themselves, which creates challenges in terms of local and international visibility. Crowdsourcing is an effective tool that engages the public to collect missing data, and it has proven to be particularly valuable in countries where governments collect little public data. Whereas crowdsourcing is often used within fields that have high levels of development funding, such as health, the authors believe that this approach would have many benefits for the library field as well. They present qualitative and quantitative evidence from 23 African countries involved in a crowdsourcing project to map libraries. The authors find benefits in terms of increased connections between stakeholders, capacity-building, and increased local visibility. These findings demonstrate the potential of crowdsourced approaches for tasks such as mapping to benefit libraries and similarly positioned institutions in the Global South in multifaceted ways.

Rashid, Y., Rashid, A., Warraich, M. A., Sabir, S. S., & Waseem, A. (2019). Case Study Method: A Step-by-Step Guide for Business Researchers . International Journal of Qualitative Methods . https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919862424

Abstract. Qualitative case study methodology enables researchers to conduct an in-depth exploration of intricate phenomena within some specific context. By keeping in mind research students, this article presents a systematic step-by-step guide to conduct a case study in the business discipline. Research students belonging to said discipline face issues in terms of clarity, selection, and operationalization of qualitative case study while doing their final dissertation. These issues often lead to confusion, wastage of valuable time, and wrong decisions that affect the overall outcome of the research. This article presents a checklist comprised of four phases, that is, foundation phase, prefield phase, field phase, and reporting phase. The objective of this article is to provide novice researchers with practical application of this checklist by linking all its four phases with the authors’ experiences and learning from recently conducted in-depth multiple case studies in the organizations of New Zealand. Rather than discussing case study in general, a targeted step-by-step plan with real-time research examples to conduct a case study is given.

VanWynsberghe, R., & Khan, S. (2007). Redefining Case Study. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690700600208

Abstract. In this paper the authors propose a more precise and encompassing definition of case study than is usually found. They support their definition by clarifying that case study is neither a method nor a methodology nor a research design as suggested by others. They use a case study prototype of their own design to propose common properties of case study and demonstrate how these properties support their definition. Next, they present several living myths about case study and refute them in relation to their definition. Finally, they discuss the interplay between the terms case study and unit of analysis to further delineate their definition of case study. The target audiences for this paper include case study researchers, research design and methods instructors, and graduate students interested in case study research.

Istanbul as a regional computational social science hub

Experiments and quantitative methodologies.

How to Subscribe

Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Case Study in Education Research

Introduction, general overview and foundational texts of the late 20th century.

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

It is important to distinguish between case study as a teaching methodology and case study as an approach, genre, or method in educational research. The use of case study as teaching method highlights the ways in which the essential qualities of the case—richness of real-world data and lived experiences—can help learners gain insights into a different world and can bring learning to life. The use of case study in this way has been around for about a hundred years or more. Case study use in educational research, meanwhile, emerged particularly strongly in the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom and the United States as a means of harnessing the richness and depth of understanding of individuals, groups, and institutions; their beliefs and perceptions; their interactions; and their challenges and issues. Writers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, advocated the use of case study as a form that teacher-researchers could use as they focused on the richness and intensity of their own practices. In addition, academic writers and postgraduate students embraced case study as a means of providing structure and depth to educational projects. However, as educational research has developed, so has debate on the quality and usefulness of case study as well as the problems surrounding the lack of generalizability when dealing with single or even multiple cases. The question of how to define and support case study work has formed the basis for innumerable books and discursive articles, starting with Robert Yin’s original book on case study ( Yin 1984 , cited under General Overview and Foundational Texts of the Late 20th Century ) to the myriad authors who attempt to bring something new to the realm of case study in educational research in the 21st century.

This section briefly considers the ways in which case study research has developed over the last forty to fifty years in educational research usage and reflects on whether the field has finally come of age, respected by creators and consumers of research. Case study has its roots in anthropological studies in which a strong ethnographic approach to the study of peoples and culture encouraged researchers to identify and investigate key individuals and groups by trying to understand the lived world of such people from their points of view. Although ethnography has emphasized the role of researcher as immersive and engaged with the lived world of participants via participant observation, evolving approaches to case study in education has been about the richness and depth of understanding that can be gained through involvement in the case by drawing on diverse perspectives and diverse forms of data collection. Embracing case study as a means of entering these lived worlds in educational research projects, was encouraged in the 1970s and 1980s by researchers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, who provided a helpful impetus for case study work in education ( Stenhouse 1980 ). Stenhouse wrestled with the use of case study as ethnography because ethnographers traditionally had been unfamiliar with the peoples they were investigating, whereas educational researchers often worked in situations that were inherently familiar. Stenhouse also emphasized the need for evidence of rigorous processes and decisions in order to encourage robust practice and accountability to the wider field by allowing others to judge the quality of work through transparency of processes. Yin 1984 , the first book focused wholly on case study in research, gave a brief and basic outline of case study and associated practices. Various authors followed this approach, striving to engage more deeply in the significance of case study in the social sciences. Key among these are Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 , along with Yin 1984 , who established powerful groundings for case study work. Additionally, evidence of the increasing popularity of case study can be found in a broad range of generic research methods texts, but these often do not have much scope for the extensive discussion of case study found in case study–specific books. Yin’s books and numerous editions provide a developing or evolving notion of case study with more detailed accounts of the possible purposes of case study, followed by Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 who wrestled with alternative ways of looking at purposes and the positioning of case study within potential disciplinary modes. The authors referenced in this section are often characterized as the foundational authors on this subject and may have published various editions of their work, cited elsewhere in this article, based on their shifting ideas or emphases.

Merriam, S. B. 1988. Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is Merriam’s initial text on case study and is eminently accessible. The author establishes and reinforces various key features of case study; demonstrates support for positioning the case within a subject domain, e.g., psychology, sociology, etc.; and further shapes the case according to its purpose or intent.

Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Stake is a very readable author, accessible and yet engaging with complex topics. The author establishes his key forms of case study: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Stake brings the reader through the process of conceptualizing the case, carrying it out, and analyzing the data. The author uses authentic examples to help readers understand and appreciate the nuances of an interpretive approach to case study.

Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1–6.

DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101

A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Beverley Hills, CA: SAGE.

This preliminary text from Yin was very basic. However, it may be of interest in comparison with later books because Yin shows the ways in which case study as an approach or method in research has evolved in relation to detailed discussions of purpose, as well as the practicalities of working through the research process.

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

What Is a Case Study?

An in-depth study of one person, group, or event

Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology.

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Benefits and Limitations

Types of case studies, how to write a case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in various fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The purpose of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, it is important to follow the rules of APA format .

A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

On the negative side, a case study:

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they are interested in exploring a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. The insights gained from such research can help the researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

However, it is important to remember that the insights gained from case studies cannot be used to determine cause and effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through the use of individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse had denied her the opportunity to learn language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something that researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers the chance to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might utilize:

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers utilize depends on the unique characteristics of the situation as well as the case itself.

There are also different methods that can be used to conduct a case study, including prospective and retrospective case study methods.

Prospective case study methods are those in which an individual or group of people is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease.

Retrospective case study methods involve looking at historical information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then work their way backward to look at information about the individual's life to determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.

Where to Find Data

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

A Word From Verywell

Case studies can be a useful research tool, but they need to be used wisely. In many cases, they are best utilized in situations where conducting an experiment would be difficult or impossible. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a great deal of information about a specific individual or group of people.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines that you are required to follow. If you are writing your case study for professional publication, be sure to check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Simply Psychology. Case Study Method .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author and educational consultant focused on helping students learn about psychology.

By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Educator, Researcher

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons), Psychology, MSc, Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources and by using several different methods (e.g., observations & interviews ).

What are Case Studies?

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events which are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Case studies are widely used in psychology, and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by Sigmund Freud, including Anna O and Little Hans .

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Even today, case histories are one of the main methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

The procedure used in a case study means that the researcher provides a description of the behavior. This comes from interviews and other sources, such as observation.

The client also reports detail of events from his or her point of view. The researcher then writes up the information from both sources above as the case study and interprets the information.

The research may also continue for an extended period of time, so processes and developments can be studied as they happen.

Amongst the sources of data the psychologist is likely to turn to when carrying out a case study are observations of a person’s daily routine, unstructured interviews with the participant herself (and with people who know her), diaries, personal notes (e.g., letters, photographs, notes) or official document (e.g., case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports).

The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to or reconstructing ‘the case history’ of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class or a specific social group), i.e., the idiographic approach .

The interview is also an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.

Most of this information is likely to be qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might collect numerical data as well.

The data collected can be analyzed using different theories (e.g., grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation, e.g., thematic coding).

All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis, and they are ideographic in their approach, i.e., they focus on the individual case without reference to a comparison group.

Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data, a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for observer bias , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2019, August 03). Case study method . Simply Psychology. simplypsychology.org/case-study.html

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Further Information

Case Study Approach Case Study Method

Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research

“We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia

Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Freud’s Case Studies

Little Hans – Freudian Case Study

H.M. Case Study

Anna O – Freudian Case Study

Genie Case Study – Curtiss (1977)

Facilitators and barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity at secondary schools: an exploratory case study

International Journal for Educational Integrity volume 19 , Article number: 4 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Academic integrity is a vital pedagogical responsibility that educational institutions should explicitly address. One of the best ways to uphold academic integrity is to create a culture of academic integrity throughout the school. This is especially imperative at high schools where students develop their moral identity because students who act dishonestly at high school will likely behave accordingly in post-secondary education and ultimately be dishonest in familial and professional settings. Creating a culture of academic integrity is a challenging, long and multifaceted journey. In this respect, this exploratory case study set out to create a culture of academic integrity at a high school in Türkiye and explore what facilitates and impedes the process. We followed Stephens’ (2016) Multilevel Intervention Model and implemented a School-Wide Education program to guide us through the process. We conducted various activities throughout one academic year, from seminars to competitions. At the end of the term, we conducted individual and focus group interviews with the members of the school community and analyzed the interview data to identify facilitators and barriers of the process. The analysis yielded five facilitators (1) creating buy-in, (2) administrative embracement and support, (3) activities that promote student involvement, (4) external expert and school collaboration as praxis, and (5) policy as the blueprint and five barriers (1) deficiencies in responding academic misconduct, (2) prioritization of academic success over academic integrity, (3) teacher resistance against change, (4) exam-based assessment design, and (5) timing of the activities. Each theme was discussed in detail, and recommendations were made for high schools which set out on a journey of creating academic integrity culture.

Introduction

Council of Europe defines education as a process that has a fundamental influence on the mind, character and physical ability of individuals resulting in the transmission of knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another (Council of Europe 2020 ). Along with this definition, educational institutions aim to foster a self-actualized society (Cangemi 1987 ) by providing individuals with the necessary understanding, knowledge, skills and values, which are the fundamental components of education. An educational institution is expected to pay utmost care and effort to the realization of these components. The imbalance or negligence of one component or prioritization of one to another, such as prioritizing knowledge and skills over values, could lead to inconsistencies in educational outcomes. Typically, educational institutions are more likely to focus more on students’ academic achievement (knowledge or skills) and may underestimate academic integrity (values). Or, on the student side, getting an ‘A’ may be more important than morality for many students (Wangaard & Stephens 2011 ). However, it is well-established that students cannot be genuinely successful without integrity (Bertram Gallant 2018 ). Academic integrity should be an essential component of academia and at the core of all scholarly works (Eaton & Christensen Hughes 2022 ). Moreover, academic integrity is a vital pedagogical responsibility that educational institutions should explicitly address (East 2016 ). Therefore, academic integrity cannot (and should not) be isolated from any educational issue. Referring back to the definition of education, it is only with academic integrity that educational institutions can raise individuals who embrace certain values and transmit them to the next generations by leading a positive change in communities. Accordingly, the ultimate aim of educational institutions should be to bring up individuals who are academically successful and embrace the fundamental values of academic integrity which are honesty, trust, fairness, respect, responsibility, and courage proposed by International Center for Academic Integrity (ICAI 2021 ).

In order to fulfil this ultimate aim, all stakeholders of education should take academic integrity seriously. McCabe et al. ( 2012 ) observe that

When people ask us, which many have, why we care so much about academic integrity when the world is gripped by bigger problems, we find this question perplexing. It challenges a view that we take for granted: that academic integrity matters a lot, especially when viewed as a barometer of the general ethical inclinations of the rising generation. We view academic integrity as a harbinger of things to come, a reflection of the general mores that society is passing on to the next generation. (McCabe et al. 2012 , p. 3)

Following this statement, McCabe et al. ( 2012 ) propose six reasons why we should care about academic integrity:

integrity is the cornerstone of academia,

cheating is widespread and on the rise,

the college years are a critical period for ethical development,

college students face significant pressures to cheat,

students are being taught that cheating is acceptable, and

today’s college students represent tomorrow’s leader. (McCabe et al. 2012 , p. 3)

From this standpoint, it is essential to foster academic integrity and take action during pre-university years (Wangaard 2016 ) when students develop their positive and ethical competencies (Berkowitz 2011 ) because academic dishonesty is an epidemic and three defining characteristics of this epidemic are common, contagious and corrosive (Stephens 2019 ). Many studies show that students have experienced a form of academic dishonesty in pre-university years, and they are likely to continue in higher education (Bertram Gallant & Stephens 2020 ; Hendershott et al. 2000 ; Hossain 2021 ; Stephens 2019 ). Academic dishonesty is a prevalent problem affecting all education stages and concerns all stakeholders (Whitley & Keith-Spiegel 2002 ). It is no surprise that, when not prevented, academic dishonesty might lead to corruption in society and pass on from one generation to another. Therefore, it is crucial to take academic integrity seriously at pre-university levels and consider it an indispensable component of teaching and learning.

To this end, we elaborated on the importance of academic integrity at pre-university levels and creating a culture of academic integrity in high schools. As outlined above, creating a culture of academic integrity is a challenging, long and multifaceted journey. Therefore, it is a worthwhile endeavor to explore the facilitators and barriers of this process. In this respect, this study set out to create a culture of academic integrity at a high school in Türkiye and explore what facilitates and impedes the process. Drawing on the data, our observations and experiences, we aimed to present takeaways regarding facilitators and barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity at high schools.

Related literature

In this section, the literature review will be presented in two parts. In the first part, academic integrity models or frameworks proposed to create a culture of academic integrity will be introduced. The second part will outline implementation studies on creating a culture of academic integrity. Since academic integrity studies at high schools are relatively scarce, post-secondary level studies will also be included.

Models / frameworks

It is well established that creating a culture of academic integrity requires a systematic and holistic approach (Bertram Gallant & Drinan 2006 ; Macdonald & Carroll 2006 ; Morris & Carroll 2015 ; Saddiqui 2016 ; Stephens 2019 ; Wangaard 2016 ). Although academic integrity primarily depends on the values of individuals, creating a culture of academic integrity is an institutional issue (Whitley & Keith-Spiegel 2001 ), and it is one of the central missions of institutions (Lathrop & Foss 2005 ). Also, this is an informed and evidence-based process. Therefore, some scholars proposed models/frameworks to help educational institutions create a culture of academic integrity which are presented below.

Wangaard and Stephens ( 2011 ) formulate that “to change individuals we must change culture; to change culture we must change individuals” (p. 7). Their conceptual model for Achieving with Integrity (AWI) strives to promote academic integrity at high schools and is a synthesis of theory and research that has proved effective in higher education. The AWI model is a four-dimensional model with two programs. The first program focuses on promoting academic integrity via a school-wide approach, while the second program adopts a classroom-based approach to improve the ethical functioning of students. The first dimension of the model is Core Values . The AWI model suggests sticking to core values (honesty, trust, respect, responsibility, effort and learning) in any circumstances to guide schools through the process. One major concern of schools should be communicating these values clearly and encouraging the school community to embrace these values in all aspects of education. The second dimension is Committees and Commitments, which comprises academic integrity committees, pledges and councils. Creating a culture of academic integrity requires the active involvement of all stakeholders at schools. Therefore, the process should be guided by an effective team representing all stakeholders, including influential leaders and team members. In the model, Wangaard and Stephens ( 2011 ) provide a wide range of materials, documents, activities and guides that could be used in this dimension. The third dimension is Culture and Community, which frames the strategies to establish shared norms, goals and values among students, teachers, parents and administrators. The ultimate aim to be achieved in this dimension is to engage and support the school community through projects and take the initiative to promote a culture of integrity. Three keywords of Curriculum and Instruction , which is the last dimension, are mastery-oriented teaching, pedagogical caring and fair testing. In this dimension, Wangaard and Stephens ( 2011 ) offer recommendations and strategies to teachers on how they can integrate academic integrity into their courses. The AWI model offers a very systematic, holistic and comprehensive framework for creating a culture of academic integrity in high schools. Driven by theory, research and field expertise of the researchers, the AWI model constitutes an informed blueprint for high schools that set out to create a culture of academic integrity.

The multisystem model of McCabe et al. ( 2012 ) for creating a culture of academic integrity is based on the premises of the ethical community-building approach, which strives to promote academic integrity by deterring academic dishonesty and fostering cooperation among faculty members (administrators, teachers and students). According to McCabe et al. ( 2012 ), a culture of integrity can be best understood by exploring the interaction between formal and informal cultural systems within the institution. From this standpoint, their model attempts to create a culture of academic integrity by aligning formal and informal systems of institutions. Formal systems comprise administrative leadership, the selection system, values, policies, codes, orientation and training, reward system, authority structure and decision process, while informal systems are role models or heroes, informal norms, rituals, myths or stories and language. They state that the key to the success of this model is alignment. Formal and informal systems in the institution should be in harmony with each other.

The Four-Stage Model of Bertram Gallant and Drinan ( 2008 ) takes its roots from institutionalization theory, which suggests that institutional change starts with initiative, then continues with implementation, followed by stabilization. The first stage of the model, Recognition and Commitment , aims to help individuals recognize the problem and create a commitment to address that problem (academic misconduct) through organizational change. Once the problem is uncovered and commitment is ensured, Response Generation (second step) is initiated. In this step, other than reacting to the problems in a non-systematic way, administrators generate responses to academic misconduct by paying attention to systemic structural explanations and engage in an intentional change. The third step involves Response Implementation, where the goal is not only preventing academic misconduct but also supporting integrious behaviors. In the Institutionalization step (fourth step), the expectation is to integrate academic integrity into organizational routines, making it a stable norm that guides teaching, learning and research. The Four-Step Model of Bertram Gallant and Drinan ( 2008 ) shows that creating a culture of academic integrity at institutions is much more than being after minor reforms such as plagiarism detection but requires a systematic and strategic effort.

Caldwell’s ( 2010 ) Ten-Step Model, which emerged after an integrative review of research, attempts to draw a clear, step-by-step roadmap for business schools on how to create a culture of academic integrity. Built on the notion that understanding and practicing ethical concepts is crucial for business students, Caldwell proposes the following 10 steps to create a culture of academic integrity: (1) Articulation of a clear purpose and mission, (2) Orientation and training of faculty, (3) Explanation and clarification of current policies, (4) Implementation of a realistic process for addressing violations, (5) Attainment of student ownership, (6) Empowerment of students in education and enforcement, (7) Maintenance of dialogue with stakeholders, (8) Refinement of the ethics curriculum, (9) Monitored enforcement and documentation of results, and (10) Evaluation of outcomes and communication of results. Caldwell suggests that the proposed model’s success is based on the dynamic involvement of all participants in the organization.

Although models/frameworks designed to create a culture of academic integrity are relatively scarce, many scholars highlighted important aspects of cultivating cultures of integrity. Creating a culture of academic integrity requires a holistic, institution-wide and integrated approach (De Maio & Dixon 2022 ), necessitates the partnership (Scanlan 2006 ) and strong commitment (Bretag & Mahmud 2015 ) of all stakeholders, obligates the design and implementation of effective academic integrity policies (Morris 2016b ), and needs clear articulation, fair and equitable implementation of these policies (Eaton 2020 ). As can be seen, creating a culture of academic integrity is a complex process, and several variables may intervene in this process. The following section presents the studies that document the implementation of creating a culture of academic integrity process.

Implementation Studies

When the implementation studies in the literature are examined, it can be seen that most researchers focus on micro (course or program) or meso (department) level (Eaton 2020 ) interventions to document or deter academic dishonesty. Very few studies were conducted on the journey of creating a culture of academic integrity at schools. These studies are presented below in chronological order.

Hendershott et al. ( 2000 ) report on the state of the academic integrity culture of a mid-sized private university. Their study primarily aimed at identifying the perspectives of school members through a survey and laying the ground for the desired culture of academic integrity. The development of the survey took place in three stages. In the first stage, members of the university community, including students, teachers and administrators, participated in a town hall meeting to discuss academic integrity. In the second stage, individual interviews and focus groups were done with key members and students to explore their concerns about academic misconduct. Based on the data from the first two stages, the survey questionnaire was developed in the third stage the results of which informed researchers about the steps to be taken at the following stages. The survey results yielded that students did not see themselves as a part of the process. Therefore, the faculty decided to raise the awareness of students first before developing a student-run honor code. Moreover, the faculty assembled an academic integrity committee to develop standards and enforcement procedures. The committee held several meetings to discuss the survey results and monitor the academic integrity climate throughout the school. Also, the committee strived to prepare students for a student-led honor code which the researchers estimated might take several years to develop this policy. The study of Hendershott et al. ( 2000 ) constitutes a good example of strategic planning prior to creating a culture of academic integrity. Exploring the school climate before taking action and acting accordingly contributes much to the strategic planning and implementation of academic integrity interventions.

East’s ( 2009 ) study reviews the current academic integrity culture of an Australian university which already had a well-written academic integrity policy and makes suggestions on how to embrace an integrated approach to academic integrity by aligning policy with teaching and learning practices. East’s review unveils that having a well-developed academic integrity policy is not enough to produce the desired impact of academic integrity culture. Rather, educational institutions should adopt an aligned, holistic and constructive approach to cultivate a learning environment that is supported by an academic integrity culture. In accordance with this approach, East suggests that (1) academic integrity awareness should be integrated into the curriculum, (2) the impact of this integration should be measured and documented so that teachers can reflect on what students need to learn, (3) those who deal with academic misconduct cases should be trained, and (4) academic misconduct cases should be handled appropriately.

Stephens and Wangaard ( 2013 , 2016 ) conducted two studies that highlight the problem of academic dishonesty among high school students and the need for effective solutions to address this issue. They claim that academic dishonesty has turned out to be an epidemic and this could be used to reduce cheating and promote integrity. In this respect, Stephens and Wangaard ( 2013 ) prepared and implemented a character education program that aim to reduce cheating and promote integrity among high school students in the USA. The results of this 3-year mixed method study show that creating a culture of academic integrity is a challenge to take on because “a long-standing and well-entrenched culture of cheating is already in place” (p. 175). Such cultural differences are slow and requires a robust and holistic endeavor. Their second study focuses on theoretical and empirical underpinnings of a process-oriented, four-component model approach to promoting students’ moral functioning related to academic integrity. In this study, Stephens and Wangaard ( 2016 ) explored the effectiveness of Achieving with Integrity (AwI) seminar supported with a teacher professional development (PD) program on creating a culture of academic integrity at secondary schools. They found that AwI seminar and teacher PD contribute to developing moral functioning of students. Taken together, these studies provide important insights into the epidemic of academic dishonesty at high schools and the potential for character education programs to promote academic integrity.

In their 5-year study, Spain and Robles ( 2011 ) narratively report on the idea generation, taking action and final output stages of creating a culture of academic integrity through policy development and implementation at a university. With detailed reporting, Spain and Robles ( 2011 ) uncover ‘the journey’ of creating a culture of academic integrity. The study starts by portraying the current academic integrity climate at the university, which has no unified academic integrity policy nor a systematic approach to handling academic misconduct, followed by thick descriptions of the steps taken to create an academic integrity culture. The steps taken include creating buy-in across the university, forming an academic integrity committee, assessing campus climate, and writing and implementing an academic integrity policy. After five-year monitoring of the academic integrity culture, Spain and Robles ( 2011 ) assert that the university’s ambitious plan positively changed the academic integrity climate.

The study of Drach and Slobodianiuk ( 2020 ) documents the academic integrity culture-building process of a university in Ukraine in line with the national higher education reform movement. Similar to the work of Hendershott et al. ( 2000 ), the study of Drach and Slobodianiuk ( 2020 ) sets out to propose evidence-based suggestions through a comprehensive survey on how the institution fosters a culture of academic integrity. The survey found that there was a problem in the adherence to the principles of academic integrity, and the university set up a team to address this problem through a project. A comprehensive set of activities such as seminars, training and professional development sessions were delivered as a part of this project. Also, the content of education was updated with a particular focus on the values education. Moreover, a training center was established to foster the academic integrity culture. With a shifting focus from a punitive to an educative approach, Drach and Slobodianiuk ( 2020 ) assert that academic integrity is successfully integrated into teaching, learning and research across the university.

All these studies show that creating a culture of academic integrity is a challenging and slow process which requires active participation of all stakeholders, alignment of policy with teaching and learning practices, effective policy development and enactment, and educational approaches. As this review of literature portrays, creating a culture of academic integrity leads to a significant positive change in the teaching, learning and research processes of educational institutions. However, this literature review also reveals that very little is known about the facilitators and barriers of this process, especially at the pre-university levels. Therefore, the present study contributes to the literature by explicitly depicting the journey of creating a culture of academic integrity at high schools and identifying facilitators and barriers to this process.

Research site

This study was carried out at a state high school in Türkiye. The school accepts 180 students every year based on the national high school entrance exam, which over three million students take every year. Students who manage to enter around 3% percentile in the exam are admitted to the school. The school is a prestigious state school where academic achievement is highly respected. Every year, almost all graduating students get into university, and most qualify to study at top universities. The school did not have an academic integrity policy, nor have they any specific course, guidelines, procedures or practices about academic integrity. Regarding academic misconduct, the school imposes sanctions only for the violations identified in the discipline regulation of the Ministry of National Education where plagiarism, collusion, fabrication, falsification or contract cheating are not included in the violation list (MoNE 2007 ). The school has two committees: the discipline committee, which imposes sanctions on students, and the honor committee, which rewards successful students. The operations of these committees are framed by the discipline regulation of the Ministry of National Education. As for an educative approach, the school does not provide any educative or awareness-raising activities to students on academic integrity.

Research design

This study is an exploratory case study combined with a community-based participatory approach and following Stephens’ ( 2016 ) multilevel intervention model. As Patton ( 2014 ) states, exploratory qualitative research is a state-of-the-art choice “in new fields of study where little work has been done, few definitive hypotheses exist, and little is known about the nature of the phenomenon” (p. 503). In this case, very little is known about the facilitators and barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity at high schools. Therefore, exploratory qualitative research is an appropriate consideration to explore the facilitators and barriers of the process. Patton ( 2014 ) maintains that in explorative research, detailed qualitative documentation of the activities, products, behaviors, and feelings of participants instead of administering and analyzing standardized instruments produces more interpretable results. As stated before, the present study portrays the whole process allowing those who are interested in the findings to inspect, judge and make their own interpretations. Yin ( 2008 ) argues that explorative case studies “should be preceded by statements about what is to be explored, the purpose of the exploration, and the criteria by which the exploration will be judged successful” (p. 37). Within this scope, this study explores facilitators and barriers of creating a culture of academic integrity at high schools and provide a rich description of this process.

We adopted the premises of a community-based participatory approach, which is “a collaborative approach to research … equitably includes all partners in the research process and often involves partnerships between academic and community organisations with the goal of increasing the value of the research product for all partners” (Coughlin et al. 2017b , p. ix). This approach strives for positive and sustainable social change with the participation and collaboration of researchers and community members (Coughlin et al. 2017a ). Whitley and Keith-Spiegel ( 2001 ) propose that members are more eager to adopt changes that originate from the school culture rather than imposed on them. It is essential to manage the change with the support of knowledgeable others (researchers in this case) in schools where the school members have little or no theoretical background knowledge about the topic. Therefore, the community-based participatory approach is likely to be a working consideration to establish the praxis between theory and practice in the process of creating institutional academic integrity culture. Administrators, teachers and students were actively involved in the conduct of activities and acted as co-researchers in the process.

Lastly, we followed Stephens’ ( 2016 ) Multilevel Intervention Model for creating a culture of academic integrity. The model comprises three stages, namely school-wide education (SWE), context-specific prevention (CSP) and (where needed) individual remediation (IR). SWE refers to the primary level of intervention targeting all community members. It aims to provide school members with opportunities to develop knowledge and skills related to academic integrity. SWE initiates an enculturation process, and this process should be strengthened with CSP which refers to initiatives to reduce academic misconduct at a specific course or program. Stephens ( 2016 ) claim that prevention here refers to both behavioral and developmental approaches with a positive framing. CSP interventions cover subject specific discussions about the importance of integrity and what constitutes dishonesty. Lastly, IR comes in when SWE and CSP fall short in preventing academic misconduct. IR refers to an immediate and consistent response to academic misconduct with restorative sanctioning to strengthen commitment to academic integrity.

Data collection and analysis

Yin ( 2008 ) proposes three main principles for data collection in case studies; using multiple sources of evidence for triangulation, creating a case study database and maintaining a chain of evidence to increase reliability. In this respect, various data collection methods were used (Table 1 ).

We analyzed the collected data in a variety of ways. We used deductive content analysis to analyze school documents and web content. A priori theme was academic integrity. For the closed questions of the survey, we made descriptive analysis, whereas inductive content analysis was used for the open-ended questions. For the analysis of individual interviews and focus groups, we conducted a thematic analysis based on the six-step framework of Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ), which comprises familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the report. Again, we made deductive content analysis on the field notes to triangulate the interview and focus group data. We voice-recorded the interviews and focus groups. We used MAXQDA software audio file coding feature to conduct the analyses of voice recordings allowing us to code interview recordings over soundwaves without transcribing the data.

Positioning ourselves

The corresponding author of this study has been working as a full-time EFL (English as a Foreign Language) lecturer at a university in Türkiye since 2013. Before that, he worked as an English teacher at the K-12 level for four years. He has been involved in academic integrity research since 2020. He is leading Integrity in School Education working group under the European Network for Academic Integrity (ENAI) and a member of several other ENAI working groups. He has teaching experience and a theoretical/practical background in academic integrity at both K-12 and higher education levels. The co-author of this study is a senior researcher at a university in Türkiye and a founder director of his institutional Centre for Academic Integrity and a founder Board member of ENAI. Throughout the research, he maintained his contact with the corresponding author to discuss the implementation of the study.

We purposefully chose the high school as the research setting for two reasons. First, we believe that sustainable change in academic integrity is likely to be achieved better in pre-university years, and second, the students of this school are high-achieving students with a high intellectual capacity. Since, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt to create a culture of academic integrity at a high school in Türkiye, we reckoned it would be a better strategy to conduct this research at a high school which has fewer variables (i.e., behavioral, educational, social problems) that adversely affect the process. The corresponding author of this study approached the school administration with the intention of being an insider at the school. In his seminal work, Freire ( 1982 ) strongly highlights the importance of being an insider in social studies. Therefore, he wanted to be involved in the process as much as possible without contaminating the natural process. Upon agreement, he spent at least two (sometimes three) days a week at school for one academic year. The school administration strongly embraced the idea of creating a culture of academic integrity and recognized him as the academic integrity mentor during this journey. His responsibility was mentoring them through the process by making suggestions on creating a culture of academic integrity, giving feedback on their initiatives, and supplying them with the necessary theoretical and background knowledge when needed. The school members implemented and managed the activities at school. He kept his involvement at the minimum level on the implementation side so that the school’s capacity to carry out the project could emerge. However, he provided a series of seminars at the beginning to introduce the concept of academic integrity to the school community.

Thick description in qualitative research contributes to the validity of findings by making the process more realistic and richer (Creswell 2013 ) and this section narrates the process of creating a culture of academic integrity at the research site in detail covering our reflections and thick descriptions of activities conducted for school-wide education.

Creating buy-in

Before going to the first meeting with the school administration, the corresponding author did preliminary research about the school to make a positive first impression. In informal meetings, he explained the study to people who knew the school principal and got preliminary information about how the principal’s approach would be. The school principal flatly refused the corresponding author’s proposal of conducting this study at their school. The principal said that since they are an academically successful school, many researchers want to conduct academic research in their school, and they no longer approve such studies on the grounds that they interfere with the functioning of the school. After explaining what academic integrity is, why it is necessary at school, and what this study promises to add to the school, he got interested in the study. The three meetings at the following week provided detailed information about the theoretical and practical aspects of the study to the school administrators including the principal and two vice-principals. In this process, presenting the current status of academic integrity studies carried out on the international scale, showing how neglected this issue is in Türkiye and visualizing the potential outputs and outcomes of the study for the school played an important role in creating the buy-in. After a successful buy-in process for about a week, the school administration invited the corresponding author to the school to plan the details, and we held a process planning meeting with the administrators. In the meeting, we decided to start with policy development and write an academic integrity policy that would guide us throughout the process. As for school-wide education, we planned a set of webinars/seminars and activities to raise awareness of academic integrity. A bilateral agreement between the school and Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University (COMU) Centre for Academic Integrity was signed to maximize the professional support from academia.

Policy development

Developing academic integrity policies either at the very beginning of the process or after the academic integrity culture is mature enough for the policy is a controversial issue. We went for the former and decided to write an academic integrity policy first. Although the policy is an abstract term, a policy document makes the term visible. The concept of academic integrity (accordingly, academic integrity policy), especially an educative approach to academic integrity, was very new to the school community. Therefore, we believed a well-written policy document would be a blueprint for introducing the concept and guiding the process.

The authors of this study first developed the Multipronged Academic Integrity Policy Writing tool ( www.academicintegritypolicy.com ). Then, we set out to write the draft version of the policy by using the tool as a team of seven, including administrators, three teachers and the corresponding author. In several meetings preceding the writing process, they were familiarized with the tool in addition to information about academic integrity culture and the educative approach to academic integrity. The team members wrote the academic integrity policy under the supervision of the corresponding author using the tool two weeks before the start of the academic year. The first draft (26 pages) was ready when the academic year started.

Then, we moved on to the feedback stage. First, we held a seminar for teachers to introduce the draft policy and get feedback. After the seminar, most of the teachers indicated their appreciation but just two of them gave minor feedback (related to wording). We also distributed a copy of the draft policy to the teachers and a link if they wanted to send anonymous feedback. However, no anonymous feedback came. Second, we held a webinar for students and parents to get their feedback. In the webinar, we introduced academic integrity in general, and what academic integrity means at the school via the policy. Similarly, we requested feedback via an anonymous online form. Of the submitted feedback, many were the wishes for effective and equitable implementation of the policy. There were also those who expressed concern that this policy would create a stricter disciplinary environment at school. Based on this feedback, we decided to highlight the educative approach of the school in the policy document and make it more visible. We finalized the policy with a few minor improvements (Additional file 1 : Appendix 1).

School-wide education

Stephens ( 2016 ) suggests that school-wide education should start before students step into the school. In line with this suggestion, we prepared catchy posters on what academic integrity is, why it is important, and the fundamental values of academic integrity and hung them on the school walls (Additional file 2 : Appendix 2). Also, we shared the digital versions of these posters on the school website and social media accounts. We prepared a brochure for newly enrolled students highlighting the importance of academic integrity at the school and including the expectations from students and attached it to the students’ enrolment files (Additional file 3 : Appendix 3). A copy of the school’s academic integrity policy was distributed to students in booklet form.

We utilized the feedback seminar and webinar as an opportunity to start school-wide education and introduced the concept of academic integrity, what it means in the school, and what the expectations of school administration are from students, teachers and parents. Along with this, we collaborated with the school counsellor to organize more seminars for students to help them internalize the notion that academic integrity is not a violation-sanction issue. These seminars aimed to highlight the positive aspects of academic integrity by introducing concepts over hypothetical cases. The school counsellor suggested organizing these seminars for small groups (at the classroom level) like a workshop. Previous experience at the school showed that large group seminars fell short of meeting the intended outcomes. Therefore, we completed the first seminar series in 12 different sessions. In these sessions, we administered a three-question online survey to students to explore their mindsets about academic integrity at the beginning of the session. We used Slido for data collection, which allows anonymous poll voting. The first question asked if they had ever heard about academic integrity, and 62% of the respondents answered ‘yes’. The second question asked the first word that comes to your mind about academic integrity. First five words were achievement ( n = 26), honesty ( n = 26), school ( n = 23), cheating ( n = 22), and discipline ( n = 20). The last question (after the session) asked whether they agreed with the following statement “I can see that academic integrity is more important than I thought” and 87% of the students responded ‘yes’ to this question. This mini-survey and our observations showed that students conceptualize academic integrity from a punitive perspective. However, classroom discussions based on hypothetical cases contributed much to changing their mindset positively.

The second seminar series was about the ethical decision-making process. Again, these seminars were organized at the classroom level and in these seminars, academic misconduct types were introduced to students and discussed using ethical dilemmas. First, we explored the ethical decision-making mechanisms of students with a survey by presenting them with the ethical dilemmas based on academic misconduct types and asked them what they would do in that case. We collected their responses anonymously via the Socrative app. Content analysis of student responses showed that students were more interested in the consequences of actions in their ethical decision-making process (Çelik 2022 ). The governing notion among students was that if the outcome of an action is good for them, it can be deemed moral. Therefore, this seminar series aimed to teach students to consider virtues rather than consequences or rules in their ethical decision-making processes.

It took almost two months to complete two seminar series. During this time, the corresponding author spent two days every week at the school. Apart from the seminar sessions, he had informal and spontaneous meetings and talks with students, teachers and administrators about academic integrity. He made observations and took field notes. In one of his observations, he noticed that most senior students were moving in front of first-year students in the lunch queue. First-year students were not happy with it, but this has long been a tradition at the school. Later, he learned from senior students that they were doing this because they needed to eat quickly and study for the university exam during the lunch break. He found this as an opportunity to teach ethical decision-making over a real-life example. In seminars, we discussed senior students’ actions based on the consequences, rules and virtues. The discussion outcome was that it is not the consequences or rules that make our actions ethical. Nevertheless, we need to rely on virtues when deciding what to do. Classroom discussions on real-school-life incidents appeared to exploit the discussion outcomes to the fullest.

We established an Honor Council during the development of the academic integrity policy, including administrators, subject teachers, school counsellors, parent-teacher association representative and the student representative. The Council monitored the implementation of the policy and managed the awareness-raising activities. One suggestion was to shoot a short movie to raise awareness of academic integrity. One of the teachers leading the school’s photography club claimed responsibility for managing the process. An announcement was made for students who wanted to volunteer for the short movie. Four students showed interest and shot an original short movie under the teacher’s supervision. The short movie was distributed via the school website, social media channels and classroom WhatsApp groups. Later, the students participated in an international academic integrity video contest with their video and won the Turnitin award. This award accelerated the impact of the video throughout the school and among the parents.

The student representative in the Honor Council proposed to choose the theme of the traditional debate tournament as academic integrity. The Council favored this idea and two teachers who had already managed the debate tournaments in the previous years took responsibility for the process. Sixteen teams (64 students) applied for the tournament. We helped them write debate questions in collaboration with the COMU Centre for Academic Integrity of Çanakkale. The tournament was completed in one month.

In summary, we aimed to increase the school community’s awareness of academic integrity with SWE and help school members develop a positive understanding and attitude towards academic integrity. Based on our observations and anonymous student feedback on the academic integrity policy at the beginning of the term, we deliberately avoided dealing with academic misconduct in a punitive way. Instead, we focused on cultivating integrity as a virtue.

Results and discussion

We analyzed the interview ( n = 11) and focus group ( n = 6) data based on the six-step framework of Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ) to explore the facilitators and barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity. We generated five themes as facilitators and five themes as barriers (Table 2 ).

Facilitators

Theme 1: creating buy-in

Creating buy-in refers to convincing the school community to invest time and effort to create a culture of academic integrity. It is well established that academic integrity policy development and implementation is not achievable without buy-in on the school side (Benson et al. 2019 ; Burke & Bristor 2016 ; Moriarty & Wilson 2022 ; Shane et al. 2018 ; Spain & Robles 2011 ; Wangaard 2016 ). Creating buy-in is essential for sustainable change because people are more eager to adopt changes that originate from the school culture rather than being imposed on them (Whitley & Keith-Spiegel 2001 ). The school community first should be convinced to change and then take action. As Dufresne’s ( 2004 ) study shows, academic integrity culture cannot be maintained at schools which do not have sufficient buy-in. From this perspective, we attempted to create buy-in first, as elaborated in the procedure section. Interviews showed that managing an effective buy-in process facilitated the formation of academic integrity culture at the school. The school principal stated that:

Normally, we do not allow scholars to do research in our school as it interferes with our functioning, but your introduction of the topic impressed us.

This is also mirrored by one of the vice-principals (VP1):

Actually, I didn’t know that academic integrity is such a broad concept. I was literally shocked when you presented some statistics related to academic misconduct in Türkiye. It was a great disappointment for me, but I grasped the importance of the topic.

Some teachers also made similar remarks. Referring to our field notes, we can say that the first reaction of administrators and teachers was positive when we first introduced academic integrity. Presenting evidence-based statistical facts about academic misconduct in Türkiye and showing the long-term consequences of academic misconduct played an important role in creating buy-in, leading the administration to embrace the topic and provide full support.

Theme 2: administrative embracement and support

Creating a culture of academic integrity is an institutional issue (Whitley & Keith-Spiegel 2001 ), and this can be achieved with a multi-stakeholder approach in which stakeholders have certain responsibilities (Kenny & Eaton 2022 ). Administrators are mainly responsible for developing and implementing an academic integrity policy (Turner & Beemsterboer, 2003 ) and closing the gap between policy and practice (Bertram Gallant & Drinan 2006 ). Lack of administrative support undermines academic integrity management at the institutions (Saddiqui 2016 ). On the other hand, administrative embracement of academic integrity and support for creating an academic integrity culture are significant facilitators. Drawing on our observations and field notes, we can affirm that the school administration was more interested and enthusiastic than we expected. In the interview, the school principal noted that:

We are a school where only academically successful students are accepted, but success does not just mean placing our students to top universities. We want them to be honest wherever they go. And, we want to bring honest individuals to society. That’s why we want to give due importance to academic integrity in our school.

In one of the teacher interviews, one teacher (T3) observed that:

This year, our principal mentioned academic integrity in all school meetings. Each time, he strongly highlighted the importance of bringing successful and honest students.

We also observed that the school principal’s enthusiasm was genuine. He called us several times to discuss his ideas to promote academic integrity. In seminars and webinar, he made the opening speeches and strongly highlighted how the school administration values academic integrity. He joined some classroom discussion sessions and encouraged students to be a part of the academic integrity culture. It was not surprising for us to see the name of the principal in the word cloud for the question of what the first word that comes to your mind is about academic integrity. Vice-principals were also very positive and helpful in this process. We planned the whole process together, and they always created room for academic integrity-related activities. The school administration’s attitude towards academic integrity and support was an important catalyst in the process.

Theme 3: activities that promote student involvement

Student engagement is a crucial element in creating a culture of academic integrity (Bretag & Mahmud 2016 ), and students play an important role in this process (John et al. 2021 ). The earlier punitive approaches to academic integrity confined students’ role to not violating academic integrity. In this approach, students are seen as moral slackers habituated to cheating (McCabe & Pavela 2000 ). However, the educative approach to academic integrity regards student involvement as one of the building blocks of academic integrity culture. As this study adopted an educative approach to academic integrity, we tried to maximize student involvement through activities that promote student participation, such as the debate tournament, the short movie, seminars/webinar and classroom discussions. Interview and focus group data show that such activities promoting student involvement can raise awareness of academic integrity. In one focus group, a student (S7) who participated in the debate tournament stated that:

To be honest, I didn’t read our academic integrity policy when it was first distributed to us. None of my friends did but for this debate tournament, I read it over and over again.

Another student (S10) in the focus group claimed:

There is a great difference in my perception of academic integrity before and after the debate tournament. I did a lot of research on academic integrity to get prepared for the debate tournament.

Many other student interviewees made similar remarks regarding the positive change in their perception of academic integrity after they participated in the debate tournament. One of the vice-principals (VP2) noted that:

I was surprised to see that a student who had a record for violating rules was in the winning team and she/he defended academic integrity quite well. It seems that such activities help them internalize academic integrity better.

The same student (S13) that the vice-principal mentioned was in the focus group and she/he stated that:

Before the debate tournament, I was aware of the existence of academic integrity, but did not know exactly what it was. But, as I researched for the tournament, I realized how important it is. We all know the rules, but this tournament allowed us to reflect on the rules.

It can be argued that the debate tournament created an opportunity for students to reflect on academic integrity better. As most students stated in the interviews, they had a basic knowledge about academic integrity. However, with the debate tournament, they voluntarily engaged in researching academic integrity, critically reflected on cases in their school and understood the educative side of academic integrity.

The short movie project was another activity that promoted student engagement and maximized the dissemination of the academic integrity concept to a wider community. In this project, students shot a short movie illustrating how academic integrity leads to societal honesty and the short movie was disseminated via the school’s social media accounts. The short movie received 2,333 likes on Instagram (the average like count of the last 30 posts was 502), and 5,335 individuals watched it on YouTube (by the 26 th of June 2022). One student (S15) in the focus group claimed that:

I never thought that academic integrity would lead to corruption in society, but this short movie helped me see the consequences of cheating in society, not only at school.

We closely monitored the preparation stage of the short movie project and took field notes. We observed that although four students were involved in the short movie project, their peers and teachers were engaged in the process because they exchanged ideas with their peers and got feedback from their teachers. The Turnitin Award for the short movie doubled the impact of the project throughout the school, and the award encouraged the school administration to invest more time and effort in academic integrity. It can be stated that student involvement in activities is likely to be a strong facilitator of raising awareness of academic integrity across the school.

Theme 4: external expert and school collaboration as praxis

Institutionalization of academic integrity, in other words creating a culture of academic integrity, is a really difficult and complex task (Bertram Gallant & Drinan 2006 ). As Wangaard ( 2016 ) clearly articulates, “creating a culture of academic integrity in any high school requires a visionary, dedicated and courageous leadership team” (p. 444). In this challenging process, high schools might need external help to facilitate the implementation of theoretical knowledge into practice. Research (e.g., Curtis et al. 2022 ) shows that expert help significantly affects schools’ understanding of academic integrity and how to implement best practices in their settings. Such an intervention serves to support establishing praxis, in other words, implementation of practice grounded in theory and research (Miron 2019 ). The praxis can be achieved with the help and support of knowledgeable others. In our case, the interview data showed that effective collaboration between the external expert (the corresponding author) and the school community facilitated academic integrity culture by implementing theory and research-driven practices. One teacher (T1) highlighted that:

This is the way it should be. I saw many projects fail in our school because they were top-down projects that told us what to do and left us alone. But this time, you closely worked with us, and we benefited from your theoretical knowledge a lot.

One of the vice-principals (VP2) made a similar remark:

You were like an insider throughout the process and this made us believe that we could do this because we trusted your expertise which kept us on track. We wouldn’t have the same result if this was coordinated by one of us.

Another teacher (T3) pointed out a different perspective:

In time, you (the expert) became the representative of academic integrity in the school. Students didn’t know your name, but they knew that you were the academic integrity guy. I think this representativeness was very important.

This was also echoed by some students in the focus groups. The following excerpts are students’ thoughts about expert involvement:

Your presence in this process gave me confidence. Our teachers were already talking to us about these issues, but your presence as an expert was more effective. (S13) If someone from our school had undertaken this, we would still think of it as a teacher’s project, but you are from the academy and you are specifically here for this job. So, we took it more seriously. (S13) When you started walking around the school, everyone asked each other who this guy is, and your presence was an intriguing element. Later, we learned that you are from the academy. This caught our interest because we all want to enter university and you were coming from the university. (S5)

In eight interviews, the importance of expert involvement and the effectiveness of collaboration were highlighted by the participants. Accordingly, it can be argued that the involvement of an external expert and collaboration with the school community is likely to be a strong facilitator for creating a culture of academic integrity.

Theme 5: policy as the blueprint

Many studies concur that academic integrity policies are essential for creating a culture of academic integrity (Martin & Haeringen 2011 ; McCabe et al. 2003 ; Morris 2016a , b ; Scanlan 2006 ; Stoesz & Eaton 2020 ; Wangaard 2016 ). The schools with an academic integrity policy report fewer misconduct cases than the schools that do not have one (McCabe & Trevino 1993 ). Therefore, an academic integrity policy lays the foundation of academic integrity culture. The interviews made it evident that having an academic integrity policy was a facilitator of creating a culture of academic integrity. One of the vice-principals (VP1) stated that:

Having an academic integrity policy concretely demonstrated the existence of academic integrity in our school and it was a roadmap for us. It helped us to take academic integrity seriously.

The other vice-principal (VP2) highlighted the importance of having a policy at the very beginning:

Our policy was very well written. It is very important that we have such a policy from a strategic point of view. It was very appropriate to start with a policy that would show us the way and keep us on the road.

Referring to our field notes, we saw that the policy booklets were all over the school, including the teachers’ room, administrators’ rooms, the library etc. As the vice-principal noted, it made the concept of academic integrity concrete in the school. During the corresponding author’s visits, when he was in the principal’s office, other school principals who came to visit the school read the policy document. They wanted to know what it was all about and indicated their interest of doing something similar. Moreover, the District Director of Ministry of National Education appreciated the policy document and said that it should be disseminated throughout the province. Without the policy document, explaining academic integrity to people outside the school might have been difficult. However, the existence of the policy document attracted the attention of others and increased the visibility of the presence of academic integrity at the school. Therefore, developing an academic integrity policy was likely to be a reasonable and effective choice for creating a culture of academic integrity.

Theme 1: deficiencies in responding to academic misconduct

Academic dishonesty is a pervasive problem (Whitley & Keith-Spiegel 2002 ), and it has long been an epidemic (Haines et al. 1986 ). Academic dishonesty has corrosive consequences such as undermining student learning, invalidating assessment and hindering students’ moral development (Stephens 2019 ). Therefore, schools’ ability to respond to academic misconduct cases plays an important role in creating a culture of academic integrity. However, responding to academic misconduct is not a matter of applying ‘quick fixes’ (Morris & Carroll 2015 ). Rather, dealing with academic misconduct cases requires effective strategies (deMontigny 2022 ). Interviews and analysis of school documents revealed deficiencies in responding to academic misconduct are a significant barrier to creating a culture of academic integrity.

One sub-theme here is legal gaps. All public and state schools in Türkiye are governed according to the regulations of the Ministry of National Education (MoNE). The Regulation on Secondary Education Institutions prescribes four sanctions against academic integrity violations: reprimand, temporary suspension, school change, and expulsion from formal education (MoNE 2013 ). All violations that require these sanctions are clearly stated in the regulation. However, prevalent academic misconduct types such as plagiarism, fabrication, contract cheating etc., are not included in the regulation as a violation. This poses a significant threat to deterring academic misconduct because school administrations cannot impose sanctions that are not articulated in the regulation. The school principal stated that:

There is a gap in the law about this issue. Such violations [plagiarism] are not included in the regulation. There’s nothing we can do about it.

One vice-principal (VP1) also noted that:

Sanctions are prescribed for only cheating in the regulation. I think the regulation should be updated based on academic integrity. National regulations are not suitable for deterring academic misconduct.

We also observed that there was no awareness of plagiarism throughout the school among students, teachers and administrators. When the corresponding author randomly checked student assignments, he saw many evidences of plagiarism in student papers. However, this was not a concern for teachers because plagiarism has never been a problem in the school (from the interview with an EFL teacher [T1]). Regarding academic misconduct, much of the focus is given to exam cheating. The school is very strict about exam cheating due to the test-based assessment design. There is likely a dichotomous relationship between the lack of awareness of plagiarism and not including plagiarism as a violation in the regulation. It can be argued that the plagiarism problem in secondary education is not visible and mature enough to be discussed on a legal basis in Türkiye.

The second sub-theme of this section is individual responses to academic misconduct. Academic integrity policies stipulate a unified approach to academic misconduct. This is one of the core elements of an academic integrity culture. However, for several reasons, teachers refrained from reporting the cases to the academic integrity council and produced their individual solutions to such cases. It was obvious that different approaches of teachers in responding to academic misconduct were likely to undermine academic integrity. This was also echoed by many students in the interview. One student (T1) stated that:

Our teachers do not behave in the same way about exam cheating. I don’t want to give names but some of our teachers do not proctor us in the exams and ignore cheating. But some are very strict about cheating.

The school counsellor made a similar point:

During exams, I noticed that some teachers just look at their mobiles while some others proctor carefully. The problem is that when students notice this, they start thinking that it won’t be a problem if I’m not caught. So, they behave according to the proctor teachers.

We also asked teacher participants why teachers might not want to report misconduct cases as described in the policy. A teacher’s (T1) response was:

There are teachers who report cheating cases to the school administration, but many solve these issues by themselves because they either don’t want to deal with the process or believe that students will somehow get away with it. Also, student assignments are not evaluated thoroughly. Most of our friends just grade the paper numerically and that’s all. So, misconduct does not emerge.

Another teacher (T3) made a remark supporting this notion:

Some teachers grade assignments in just two hours, while for some, it takes two days. There is an injustice in grading assignments.

From our field notes and interview data, it was obvious that violations and sanctions in the policy were neglected. Only the exam cheating cases and some behavioral problems were reported to the school administration, and sanctions were imposed for these violations. As Jendrek ( 1989 ) suggests, having a well-written academic integrity policy does not guarantee that the school community will comply. The reluctance of the school is essential for a unified response to academic misconduct, which can be achieved with the effective implementation of academic integrity policies (McCabe & Trevino 1993 ).

Theme 2: prioritization of academic success over academic integrity

In recent years, demand for productivity has increased for students and schools, making academic success important for students by maintaining a high grade point average (GPA) (Tippitt et al. 2009 ). This demand might lead to pressure for success at all costs. It is likely that, in some cases, academic success is valued more than academic integrity (Houdyshellm 2017 ), and in such cases, academic misconduct can be a norm. In the Turkish education system, entering a university is a big challenge and competition for students. Every year, more than two million students take the national university exam. Students’ GPA score is added to the exam score, which ends up in grade inflation, especially in private schools (Kayip & Kartal 2021 ). Entering a university is important not only for students but also for schools as they boast with the number of students who enter a university. Therefore, academic misconduct can be discussed from the perspective of students and the school. Referring to our field notes, we can say that academic success is highly valued at the research school. The school is renowned for its productivity in placing almost all students to a university every year. We did not observe prevalent grade inflation. However, there were instances. In the 10 th class, students choose a branch such as natural sciences, social sciences, literature or foreign languages. In this system, the corresponding author witnessed the tendency to classify courses as “important” and “less important” according to their branch. For example, philosophy is a “less important” course for natural science students, and academic misconduct may be tolerated in such courses. In the final match of the debate tournament, one student raised a widely used strategy in the school. Students have the right to demand an assignment, called performance work, from the courses they take. They tend to take these assignments from “less important” courses and submit a plagiarized (copy-paste from the internet sources) paper. Since, this is a “less important” course, the teachers award a high grade to students because it is not welcomed to decrease the GPA of students with low grades from “less important” courses. This was also mirrored by a student (S8) in the focus group interview:

The purpose of some performance work assignments is not to evaluate learning but to increase our GPA. But the assignments in our subject courses are challenging.

One teacher (T3) also noted:

In most schools, academic success comes before academic integrity but in our school, we almost have a balance. But of course, there are problems. I remember a case in which a student’s misconduct case was tolerated because she/he was a successful student with a high potential to enter top universities. The school administration didn’t want students to have a record in her/his file.

Another point supporting this theme was that senior students’ absence is tolerated by the Ministry of National Education. I witnessed that senior students did not come to the school one month before the national university entrance exam; instead, they studied at home. This is not a legal practice. One of the vice-principals (VP1) claimed that:

Although it is not legal, every year, we get a notice from MoNE to tolerate senior students’ absences.

This is a very widespread practice in almost all schools in Türkiye, not special to the research school. The unusual point here is that the inappropriate directive comes from upper management. This can be shown as an example of how prioritizing academic success undermines academic integrity.

Theme 3: teacher resistance against change

I have 60 students in two classes. Our classes are crowded which makes it difficult for us to check all student papers for plagiarism. Plus, we have lots of extra teaching workload in the background.

The school does not use text-matching software to help teachers check for plagiarism in student papers. Teachers with a graduate degree (two MA and one PhD) were aware that using a text-matching tool is a must; yet, as the school is totally funded by the MoNE, it has no funding for such services. One of the vice-principals (VP1) noted that:

A teacher evaluates around 70 performance works in one term. We don’t use a text-matching tool, so if they want to check plagiarism, they need to search on Google, but none of our teachers does this because this is a huge workload.

Two teachers pointed out the problem of workload in reporting academic misconduct cases. In my informal conversations, some teachers also highlighted this issue. Some teachers refrain from filling in case reporting documents, engaging in discussions with parents and participating in meetings. They see this process as time-consuming, so due to this workload, they may skip the misconduct cases they witnessed or produce their individual responses.

The second sub-theme that leads to teacher resistance is the beliefs and misconceptions of teachers about academic integrity. Personal beliefs or misconceptions of teachers result in not implementing academic integrity policy or rejecting the culture of academic integrity. Interviews and our field notes reveal that teachers have the following beliefs and misconceptions about academic integrity. Some teachers’ beliefs were:

There is no point in reporting misconduct cases because students will somehow get away with it.

The national education system should change; otherwise, whatever we do won’t work.

Dishonesty comes from families and society, so we cannot do anything about it.

Every teacher should act in the same way, but this is impossible.

Some examples of teacher misconceptions were:

Academic integrity is related to academic research.

Academic integrity is related to citing works in a paper.

Academic integrity is applied only in English classes.

Academic integrity is about punishing students who violate rules.

Such beliefs and misconceptions cause teachers to resist to adapt the culture of academic integrity.

Theme 4: exam-based assessment design

Adopting an authentic assessment design has clear implications for reducing academic misconduct and upholding academic integrity (Bertram Gallant 2017 ; Egan 2018 ; Ellis et al. 2020 ; Morris 2016a ). On the other hand, poor and uniform assessment designs are more likely to lead to violations of academic integrity. As noted earlier, the most common and dwelled-upon academic misconduct type in the school is cheating in exams. The main reason for this is that the assessment is mainly made by exams. Students take three exams for each course in one term. Apart from exams, they take a performance work and a project work for the courses they choose. However, these assignments are not authentic assignments and, as noted earlier, are given to increase the GPA of students. As we learned from students and teachers, some examples of the topics of such assignments are writing a summary of a book, writing an informative essay about a famous writer or philosopher, solving a number of math problems etc. As such assignment topics far from being authentic, they are very easy-to-plagiarize. In such an assessment design where exams are central to the evaluation of student performance, and assignments are given to increase student GPA, misconduct forms other than exam cheating, especially plagiarism, remain obscure. However, authentic assessments are essential tools to help students embrace the fundamental values of academic integrity, such as honesty, respect and responsibility (ICAI 2021 ).

Theme 5: Timing of the activities

Stephens ( 2016 ) suggests that awareness-raising activities on academic integrity should start before students step into the school campus and continue throughout the year. However, drawing on our experiences in this process, we observed that timing is almost equally important as what is done. Poor timing of school-wide education may become a barrier in the process and reduce the intended outcomes of activities no matter how well they are prepared. One of the main problems we experienced in this process was scheduling the activities. The school administration made a great effort to create room for activities by aligning teachers’ and students’ schedules. The exam weeks were extraordinary weeks when all students just focused on the exams. So, in these weeks, no activities were conducted. Also, the days after the last exam (approximately three weeks before the end of the term) are not suitable for activities in that most students do not come to school and are not in the mood to participate in school-related activities. This was also echoed by a student (S4) in the focus group:

I think the activities should be made at the beginning and in the middle of the term because through the end of the term, we lose our concentration and don’t want to engage in activities.

It is essential to schedule the activities at the beginning of the term and decide on the dates that potentially maximize student involvement.

In this study, we attempted to explicitly portray the one-year journey of creating a culture of academic integrity at a high school in Türkiye and identify the facilitators and barriers of the journey through the interviews and our field notes. Since creating cultures of academic integrity requires a holistic (Stephens 2019 ) and multi-stakeholder (Kenny & Eaton 2022 ) intervention, we adopted a community-based participatory research approach to integrating the school community into the process as co-researchers. We started by writing an academic integrity policy using the online tool we developed. During the development of the policy, we adopted an educative approach and attempted to implement the policy throughout the year. At the end of the year, we conducted individual and focus group interviews and identified five facilitators and five barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity. The facilitators were (1) creating buy-in, (2) administrative embracement and support, (3) activities that promote student involvement, (4) external expert and school collaboration as praxis, and (5) policy as the blueprint. The barriers were (1) deficiencies in responding to academic misconduct, (2) prioritization of academic success over academic integrity, (3) teacher resistance against change, (4) exam-based assessment design, and (5) timing of the activities.

As stated earlier, creating a culture of academic integrity is a journey, and the thick description of this journey proposes significant takeaways for readers. In this study, we tried to portray the journey explicitly and identified the facilitators and barriers with an evidence-based approach. Within this scope, we can propose some takeaways for high schools which set out on a journey of creating academic integrity culture:

Creating buy-in is an essential catalyst for creating a culture of academic integrity. The school community’s aspiration, especially administrators’, plays a decisive role in the success of the process. A well-planned buy-in effort can be the first step in creating an academic integrity culture.

Getting full support from the school administration is another key point. The school administration should embrace the idea of creating a culture of academic integrity and explicitly provide full support.

An educative approach to academic integrity strives to raise awareness of students through activities that promote student involvement. Students are more likely to internalize academic integrity when they engage in academic integrity-related activities. Such activities allow students to be active researchers about academic integrity rather than being passive receivers of knowledge.

In schools where the concept of academic integrity is very new to the school community, getting external help from academic integrity experts plays a vital role in establishing the culture. Expert-school collaboration enables taking actions grounded in theory and research. In cases where expert involvement is not possible, schools should seek collaboration from higher education institutions or academic integrity centers.

Having an academic integrity policy is not a prerequisite for having a culture of academic integrity, but an academic integrity policy is likely to facilitate establishing a culture in that it serves as a concrete representative of academic integrity at the school and also acts as a blueprint that guides the process.

Adopting a unified approach to responding to academic misconduct is vital, but it is quite challenging to achieve this. The deficiencies in responding to academic misconduct are context-specific. Therefore, revealing the context-specific barriers may signal school administration on what to work.

Prioritization of academic success over academic integrity leads to the normalization of unethical behaviors at the institutional level and undermines academic integrity culture. Schools should devote themselves to bringing up successful and honest students without putting much emphasis or value on one than another.

Teachers are among the key stakeholder in the implementation of academic integrity policy and maintaining the academic integrity culture. It is very much likely that teachers can demonstrate resistance to this cultural demonstration. School administration should act delicately to mitigate teacher resistance.

It is well established that adopting an authentic assessment design has clear implications for reducing academic misconduct. In exam-based assessment designs, the only visible academic misconduct is exam cheating. Also, putting too much emphasis on exams in the evaluation of students’ performance can make take-home assignments “less important”, and students are likely to plagiarize, and teachers do not monitor plagiarism in such assignments.

Poor timing of activities curbs the realization of the intended outcomes. The activities should be scheduled carefully so that the students can make the most of them.

Creating a culture of academic integrity is an institution-specific journey. However, this journey can be easier and more effective when informed by the experiences of others and best practices. From this aspect, the takeaways of this study may provide food for thought for schools that embark on creating a culture of academic integrity.

Availability of data and materials

The data will be made available on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

International Center for Academic Integrity

European Network for Academic Integrity

Achieving with Integrity

Professional Development

Ministry of National Education

School-Wide Education

Context-Specific Prevention

Individual Remediation

English as a Foreign Language

Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University

Benson L, Rodier K, Enström R, Bocatto E (2019) Developing a university-wide academic integrity e-learning tutorial: a Canadian case. Int J Educ Integr 15(1):5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-019-0045-1

Article Google Scholar

Berkowitz MW (2011) What works in values education. Int J Educ Res 50(3):153–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.07.003

Bertram Gallant T (2017) Academic integrity as a teaching & learning Issue: From theory to practice. Theory into Practice 56(2):88–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2017.1308173

Bertram Gallant T (2018) Part-time integrity? Contingent faculty and academic Integrity. New Directions for Community Colleges 2018(183):45–54. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20316

Bertram Gallant T, Drinan P (2006) Institutionalizing academic integrity: Administrator perceptions and institutional actions. NASPA J 43(4):61–81. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1723

Bertram Gallant T, Drinan P (2008) Toward a model of academic integrity institutionalization: Informing practice in postsecondary education. Can J Higher Educ 38(2):25–43 ( https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ815066 )

Google Scholar

Bertram Gallant T, Stephens JM (2020) Punishment is not enough: The moral imperative of responding to cheating with a developmental approach. J College Char 21(2):57–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2020.1741395

Braun V, Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 3(2):77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Bretag T, Mahmud S (2015) A conceptual framework for implementing exemplary academic integrity policy in Australian higher education. In: TA Bretag (ed) Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, pp 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_24-1

Bretag T, Mahmud S (2016). A conceptual framework for implementing exemplary academic integrity policy in Australian higher education. In T. Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_24

Burke MM, Bristor J (2016) Academic integrity policies: Has your institution implemented an effective policy? Account Educators’ J 26:1–10

Caldwell C (2010) A ten-step model for academic integrity: a positive approach for business schools. J Bus Ethics 92(1):1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0144-7

Cangemi JP (1987) Education and self-actualization. J Instr Psychol 14(4):164

Çelik Ö (2022) Consequences, rules or virtues: How EFL students justify their actions? [Paper presentation]. 8 th European Conference on Academic Integrity and Plagiarism, Porto, Portugal

Coughlin SS, Smith SA, Fernandez ME (2017a). Overview of community-based participatory research. In: SS Coughlin, SA Smith, ME Fernandez (eds.) Handbook of community-based participatory research. Oxford University Press, p. 1–10.

Coughlin SS, Smith SA, Fernandez ME (2017b) Preface. In: Coughlin SS, Smith SA, Fernandez ME (eds) Handbook of community-based participatory research. Oxford University Press, pp ix–xi

Chapter Google Scholar

Council of Europe (2020) COMPASS manual for human rights education with young people: education, 2nd edn. ( https://www.coe.int/en/web/compass/education )

Creswell JW (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE.

Crossman K (2019) Is this in my contract?: How part-time contract faculty face barriers to reporting academic integrity breaches. Can Perspect Acad Integrity 2(1):32–39. https://doi.org/10.11575/CPAI.V2I1.68934

Curtis GJ, Slade C, Bretag T, McNeill M (2022) Developing and evaluating nationwide expert-delivered academic integrity workshops for the higher education sector in Australia. High Educ Res Dev 41(3):665–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2021.1872057

De Maio C, Dixon K (2022) Promoting academic integrity in institutions of higher learning: What 30 years of research (1990–2020) in Australasia has taught us. Journal of College and Character 23(1):6–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2021.2017972

deMontigny D (2022). Managing academic integrity in Canadian engineering schools. In: SE Eaton, J Christensen Hughes (eds.), Academic integrity in Canada: An enduring and essential challenge. Springer International Publishing, p. 291–306. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83255-1_15

Drach I, Slobodianiuk O (2020) Building a culture of academic integrity in the student environment case of Vinnytsia National Technical University (Ukraine). Creat Educ 11(08):1442. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2020.118105

Dufresne RL (2004) An action learning perspective on effective implementation of academic honor codes. Group Org Manag 29(2):201–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601103261472

East J (2009) Aligning policy and practice: An approach to integrating academic integrity. J Acad Lang Learn 3(1):A38–A51 ( https://journal.aall.org.au/index.php/jall/article/view/66 )

East J (2016). Educational responses to academic integrity. In: T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_33

Eaton SE (2020). Understanding academic integrity from a teaching and learning perspective: Engaging with the 4M framework [Report]. Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary, AB. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/handle/1880/112435

Eaton SE, Christensen Hughes J (2022). Introduction. In SE Eaton, J. Christensen Hughes J. (eds) Academic integrity in Canada: an enduring and essential challenge. Springer, p. xi–xvii. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83255-1_24

Egan A (2018). Improving academic integrity through assessment design [Monograph]. Dublin City University. https://doras.dcu.ie/22683/

Ellis C, van Haeringen K, Harper R, Bretag T, Zucker I, McBride S, Rozenberg P, Newton P, Saddiqui S (2020) Does authentic assessment assure academic integrity? Evidence from contract cheating data. High Educ Res Dev 39(3):454–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1680956

Freire P (1982) Creating alternative research methods: Learning to do it by doing it. In: Hall B, Gilette A, Tandon R (eds) Creating knowledge: A monopoly? Society for Participatory Research in Asia, pp 29–37

Gottardello D, Karabag SF (2022) Ideal and actual roles of university professors in academic integrity management: A comparative study. Stud High Educ 47(3):526–544. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2020.1767051

Haines VJ, Diekhoff GM, LaBeff EE, Clark RE (1986) College cheating: Immaturity, lack of commitment, and the neutralizing attitude. Res Higher Educ 25(4):342–354 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40195757

Hamilton M, Wolsky K (2022). The barriers to faculty reporting incidences of academic misconduct at community colleges. In: SE Eaton & J Christensen Hughes (eds.), Academic integrity in Canada: An enduring and essential challenge. Springer International Publishing, p. 467–485. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83255-1_24

Haq AU, Mahmood S, Shabbir M, Batool Z (2020) Assessing the academic integrity among university students in Pakistan. J Bus Soc Rev Emerg Econ 6(3):1025–1032. https://doi.org/10.26710/jbsee.v6i3.1359

Hendershott A, Drinan P, Cross M (2000) Toward enhancing a culture of academic integrity. NASPA J 37(4):587–598. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1119

Hossain Z (2021). Academic integrity literacy of students at the time of enrolment in postsecondary courses: a study of an online university. In: Book of abstracts European Conference on Academic Integrity and Plagiarism 2021. p. 33–37 https://academicintegrity.eu/conference/proceedings/2021/book_of_abstracts2021.pdf#page=33

Hossain Z (2022) Ethical literacy education in K-12 using the 4P academic integrity literacy model [Paper presentation]. International Association for School Librarianship Conference (IASL2022), South Carolina

Houdyshellm M (2017) Academic integrity in an emerging democracy: How university students in a former Soviet Republic balance achievement and success in education. J Ethnic Cultural Stud 4(1):14. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/64

Hudd SS, Apgar C, Bronson EF, Lee RG (2009) Creating a campus culture of integrity: Comparing the perspectives of full- and part-time faculty. The Journal of Higher Education 80(2):146–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2009.11772137

ICAI. (2021). The fundamental values of academic integrity. International Center for Academic Integrity. https://academicintegrity.org/images/pdfs/20019_ICAI-Fundamental-Values_R12.pdf

Jendrek MP (1989) Faculty reactions to academic dishonesty. J Coll Stud Dev 30(5):401–406

John SR, Ramdas S, Khan S, Wilson S, Shabbir R (2021) Formation of the student board at the UAE Centre for Academic Integrity—Our initiatives and experience. Cana Perspect Acad Integrity 4:38–41. https://doi.org/10.11575/cpai.v4i2.74169

Kayip S, Kartal Ş (2021) 4+4+4 eğitim sisteminin ortaöğretime yansımalarına ilişkin öğretmen ve yönetici görüşleri (The views of teachers and principals on reflections of 4+4+4 education system on secondary education). OPUS Int J Soc Res 11:4776–4823. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.909516

Kenny N, Eaton SE (2022). Academic integrity through a SoTL lens and 4M framework: An institutional self-study. In: SE Eaton & J. Christensen Hughes (eds.), Academic integrity in Canada: an enduring and essential challenge. Springer International Publishing, p. 573–592 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83255-1_30

Keyes R (2007) The quote verifier: Who said what, where, and when. St. Martin’s Publishing Group

Lathrop A, Foss KE (2005). Guiding students from cheating and plagiarism to honesty and integrity: Strategies for change. Libraries Unlimited.

Macdonald R, Carroll J (2006) Plagiarism—A complex issue requiring a holistic institutional approach. Assess Eval High Educ 31(2):233–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930500262536

Martin J, van Haeringen K (2011) Can a policy change practice? An evidence-based approach to developing policy. Int J Educ Integrity 7(2):2. https://doi.org/10.21913/IJEI.v7i2.760

McCabe DL, Butterfield KD, Treviño LK (2003) Faculty and academic integrity: The influence of current honor codes and past honor code experiences. Res High Educ 44(3):367–385. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023033916853

McCabe DL, Butterfield KD, Treviño LK (2012). Cheating in college: Why students do it and what educators can do about it. JHU Press.

McCabe DL, Pavela G (2004) Ten (updated) principles of academic integrity: How faculty can foster student honesty. Change 36(3):10–15 ( https://www.jstor.org/stable/40177967 )

McCabe D, Pavela G (2000) Some good news about academic integrity. Change 32(5):32–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091380009605738

McCabe D, Trevino LK (1993) Academic dishonesty. The Journal of Higher Education 64(5):522–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1993.11778446

Miron J (2019) Academic integrity in a student practice environment—an elicitation study. The Journal of Educational Thought 52(3):253–274

MoNE (2007) Ministry of national education secondary educational institutions award and discipline regulation https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2007/01/20070119-3.htm

MoNE (2013) Regulation on secondary education institutions ( https://ogm.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2019_07/16134512_yonetmelik.pdf )

Moriarty C, Wilson B (2022) Justice and consistency in academic integrity: Philosophical and practical considerations in policy making. Journal of College and Character 23(1):21–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/2194587X.2021.2017971

Morris EJ (2016a). Academic integrity: a teaching and learning approach. In T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 1037–1053. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_11

Morris EJ (2016b). Academic integrity policy and practice: Introduction. In: T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 409–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_79

Morris EJ, Carroll J (2015). Developing a sustainable holistic institutional approach: Dealing with realities “on the ground” when implementing an academic integrity policy. In T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_23-2

Patton MQ (2014). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. SAGE Publications.

Saddiqui S. (2016). Engaging students and faculty: examining and overcoming the barriers. In T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 1009–1036 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_18

Scanlan CL (2006) Strategies to promote a climate of academic integrity and minimize student cheating and plagiarism. J Allied Health 35(3):179–185

Shane MJ, Carson L, Edwards M (2018) A case study in updating academic integrity policy and procedures. New Directions for Community Colleges 183:83–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20320

Spain JW, Robles MM (2011) Academic integrity policy: The journey. Bus Commun Q 74(2):151–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/1080569911404407

Stephens JM (2016). Creating cultures of integrity: a multilevel intervention model for promoting academic honesty. In: T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 995–1007. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_13

Stephens JM (2019) Natural and normal, but unethical and evitable: The epidemic of academic dishonesty and how we end it. Change 51(4):8–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2019.1618140

Stoesz BM, Eaton SE (2020). Academic integrity policies of publicly funded universities in Western Canada. Educational Policy 0895904820983032. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820983032

Tippitt MP, Ard N, Kline JR, Tilghman J, Chamberlain B, Meagher GP (2009) Creating environments that foster academic integrity. Nurs Educ Perspect 30(4):239–244

Wan G, Scott MR. Start them early and right: Creating a culture of academic integrity in elementary schools. In T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 413–427. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_50

Wangaard DB (2016). Practices to support developing academic integrity in secondary school students. In: T Bretag (ed.), Handbook of academic integrity. Springer, p. 429–448 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_34

Wangaard DB, Stephens JM (2011). Creating a culture of academic integrity: A toolkit for secondary schools. Search Institute Press.

Whitley BE, Keith-Spiegel P (2001) Academic integrity as an institutional issue. Ethics Behav 11(3):325–342. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327019EB1103_9

Whitley BE, Keith-Spiegel P. (2002). Academic dishonesty: An educator’s guide. L. Erlbaum.

Yin RK (2008). Case study research: design and methods (4 th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Stephens JM, Wangaard DB (2013) Using the epidemic of academic dishonesty as an opportunity for character education: A three-year mixed methods study (with mixed results). Peabody J Educ 88(2):159-179

Stephens JM, Wangaard DB (2016) The achieving with integrity seminar: an integrative approach to promoting moral development in secondary school classrooms. Int J Educ Integr 12(1):1-16

Turner SP, Beemsterboer PL (2003) Enhancing academic integrity: formulating effective honor codes. J Dent Educ 67(10):1122-1129

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study is a part of first author’s PhD dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Türkiye. The second author is the supervisor of the first author. We would like to thank administrators, teachers and students at the research site for their help.

Author bios

Özgür Çelik is a TEFL instructor at the School of Foreign Languages, Balıkesir University, Türkiye. His main research areas include academic integrity and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) writing. He is leading the Integrity in School Education working group under European Network for Academic Integrity. Also, he is a member of several working groups of this network.

Salim Razı is an associate professor at the English Language Teaching Programme of Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University (COMU), Türkiye. He is the Founder Director of COMU Centre for Academic Integrity. He is also a Founder Board member of the European Network for Academic Integrity. He developed the ‘Transparent academic writing rubric’ and aims at preventing plagiarism through an ‘anonymous multi-mediated writing model’, for which he was awarded the Turnitin Global Innovation Award in 2015. His model was also listed as a good practice by the Australian Government Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency in 2017. Web page: http://www.salimrazi.com

This study is supported by the International Research Foundation for English Language Education (TIRF— https://www.tirfonline.org ).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Foreign Languages, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir, Türkiye

Özgür Çelik

Faculty of Education / Centre for Academic Integrity, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Türkiye

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

ÖÇ and SR designed the study. ÖÇ and SR prepared materials. ÖÇ conducted school-wide education and data collection. ÖÇ and SR analyzed the data. Paper written by ÖÇ; reviewed, revised and finalized by SR. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Özgür Çelik .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors state no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: appendix 1., additional file 2: appendix 2., additional file 3: appendix 3., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and Permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Çelik, Ö., Razı, S. Facilitators and barriers to creating a culture of academic integrity at secondary schools: an exploratory case study. Int J Educ Integr 19 , 4 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-023-00125-4

Download citation

Received : 09 November 2022

Accepted : 26 January 2023

Published : 06 March 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-023-00125-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

International Journal for Educational Integrity

ISSN: 1833-2595

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 6 March 2023, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/